CHOLET-CHORALE. for its composition, the one generally accepted being were as much as half a yard high; and in Venice, C,,H,,O. It is not always very easy of detection where they were universally worn, their height in animal fluids, but if, by its insolubility in water, distinguished the quality of the lady. The C. is acids, and alkalies, and its solubility in hot alcohol mentioned by Shakspeare in Hamlet. The accomand ether, it has been recognised as a fatty sub-panying representation of a C. is copied from stance, it may be readily distinguished from all Douce's Illustrations of Shakspeare. similar substances by the measurement of the angles of its rhombic tablets. The best method of preparing C. is by boiling gall-stones containing it in alcohol, and filtering the solution while hot. From this hot filtered solution it crystallises as the fluid cools. Chemists have obtained substances known as cholesterilins and cholesterones from the decomposition of cholesterine. CHOLET, a town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Maine, 32 miles south-west of Angers. Here, during the Vendean war, two actions were fought in 1793, in both of which the royalists were defeated. In the first, they lost their brave general Bonchamps; and the second drove them across the Loire, thus It has virtually deciding the war against them. manufactures of fine woollen and mixed fabrics, and leather, and a trade in cattle. Pop. (1881) 13,921. CHOLU'LA, a once flourishing, but now decayed, town of Mexico, 60 miles to the east-south-east of the capital, and 15 to the west-north-west of La Puebla Cortes found in it 20,000 houses, and as many more in the suburbs, and also 400 temples. Now the place contains only about 10,000 inhabitants. Its most remarkable memorial of aboriginal times is a pyramid of clay and brick, surmounted on the top by a chapel of Spanish origin. height is 177 feet, while the side of its base measures 480 yards. C. stands on the table-land of Anahuac, at an elevation of 6912 feet above the level of the sea. Its CHO'NDA, a town of Gwalior, 18 miles to the north-west of the fort of the latter name, in lat. 26° It claims notice merely as 27' N., and long. 78° E. the scene of a decisive victory gained by Sir Hugh, afterwards Lord Gough, over the Mahrattas, on 29th December 1843. CHO'NDRINE. See GELATINE. CHONDROPTERY'GII. See CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. CHO'NETES, a genus of fossil brachiopodous mollusca, nearly allied to the well-known genus Productus. It is characterised by its transverselyoblong shell, and by having the long margin of CHORA'GIC MONUMENTS. The choragus or person at Athens who, on behalf of his tribe, had supported the chorus (q. v.), and who, in competi tion with the other tribes, had exhibited the best the ventral valve armed with a series of tubular Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, restored. spines. Twenty-nine species have been described from the Paleozoic formations. CHO'NOS ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands off the W. coast of Patagonia, lat. 44°46° S., long. 74-75° W. With the exception of a few of the most westerly, all are bare and scantily peopled, though several are of considerable extent. CHOPIN, FRÉDÉRIC. See SUPP., Vol. X. CHO'PIN (Scotch, chappin), the name of a Scotch liquid measure equivalent to the English quart. CHO'PINE (Spanish, chapin), a high clog, or slipper, deriving its name, as is supposed, from the sound chap, chop, made by the wearers in walking. Chopines were of Eastern origin, but were introduced into England from Venice during the reign of Elizabeth. They were worn by ladies under the shoes, and were usually made of wood covered with leather, often of various colours, and frequently painted and gilded. Some of them Chopine. musical or theatrical performance, received a tripod for a prize; but he had the expense of consecrating it, and of building the monument on which it was placed. There was at Athens a whole street formed by these monuments, called the 'Street of the Tripods.' The figure represents the monument of Lysicrates, popularly known as the 'Lantern of Demosthenes." CHO'RAL MUSIC, the ancient music of the church. Music in parts for different voices. See SACRED MUSIC. CHORAL SERVICE, the musical service of the English Church, celebrated by a full complement of clergymen and choristers in a cathedral church, and when all those parts of the service are sung as ordered in the rubrics. CHORA'LE, a musical term adopted from the German, means a melody to which sacred hymns or psalms are sung in public worship by the whole The melody of the C. congregation in unison. moves in notes of a slow and strictly measured progression, and of a solemn and dignified character that 7 G CHORD-CHOREA. thirds combined is called diminished, as the interval admits of two inversions, according as one or other of its notes is made the bass, or lowest note of the C., thus: Fundamental Chord. 1st inversion. 2d inversion. By adding another third above the common C., a C. of four parts is produced, which is called the chord of the seventh, because the highest note is a seventh above the bass. When the C. of the seventh is produced on the fifth of the scale, it is then called the dominant seventh, which is the most perfect third, perfect fifth, and seventh, the minor, which is species of the C. It then consists of a major the next harmonic produced by nature above the fifth. The C. of the seventh may also be formed on any of the notes of the major or minor scale taken as a bass note, which produces the varieties of major, minor, and diminished sevenths, thus: disposes the mind to devotion. Although the term 40 30 20 10 F with the chord of 60°. D B and are divided into concords and discords. The union of sounds in all chords will be found, on Dominant 7th. Major 7th. Minor 7th. Diminished 7th. The C. of the seventh admits of three inversions, according as the notes above the fundamental note are used as bass notes. From its nature, it requires a resolution, and is therefore always followed by a common C. whose fundamental bass is a fifth below that of the seventh. For the C. of the ninth, see HARMONY. The first proper arranged system of chords is by Rameau, in 1720, which has from time to time been extended and improved by Marpurg, Kirenberger, G. Weber, F. Schneider, Marx, and the late Professor S. W. Dehn of Berlin. CHORE'A (Gr. choreia, a dancing or jumping), a disease popularly called St Vitus's Dance, and consisting of a tendency to involuntary and irregular muscular contractions of the limbs and face, the mind and the functions of the brain generally being of most other convulsive affections in being unquite unaffected. The spasms of C. differ from those accompanied either by pain or by rigidity; being, rather a want of control of the will over the muscles, in fact, momentary jerking movements, indicating than any real excess of their contractions. In some cases, the disease resembles merely an exaggeration of the restlessness and 'fidgetiness' common among children; in others, it goes so far as to be a very serious malady, and may even threaten life. Fatal cases, however, are fortunately very rare, and in the analysing their component parts, to be an admix-large majority of instances the disease yields readily ture of major and minor thirds. The common chord, or Trias harmonica perfecta, is the basis of all harmony, and consists of a bass note, or prime, with its third and fifth above, thus: to treatment carefully pursued, or disappears spontaneously as the patient grows up. C. is a disease much more common among children of six years old, and upwards, than at any other period of life: it is also more common among female children than among males. The treatment generally pursued is the use of metallic tonics, such as zinc, copper, iron, and arsenic (the last, perhaps, the best), sometimes preceded or accompanied by purgatives. Exercise in the open air is also to be recommended; and gymnastics afford material aid in the cure. It is to be observed that the name St Vitus's Dance the (Dance of St Weit) was applied originally in Germany to a different form of disease from that C. is called a minor chord. A chord of two minor above referred to-one closely approaching in its These three sounds are at the distance of a third from each other. When the lowest third is the greater third, as above, the C. is a major chord; but when the lowest third is the lesser, thus: CHORLEY-CHOUANS. characters the epidemic dancing mania,' which, the C. far exceed anything attempted a century in Italy, was called Tarantism (q. v.). CHO'RLEY, a town in Lancashire, on a hill on the Chor, 9 miles south-south-east of Preston. It has an ancient parish church, supposed to be of Norman origin, and manufactures of cotton-yarn, jaconets, muslins, fancy goods, calicoes, and ginghams. In the vicinity are several coal-mines, a lead-mine, besides mines and quarries of iron, alum, slates, millstones, &c. Pop. (1881) 19,472. CHO'RUS, among the ancients, meant a band of singers and dancers employed on festive occasions of great pomp, and also in the performance of tragedy and comedy on the stage. In the time of the Attic tragedy, the C. consisted of a group of persons, male and female, who remained on the stage during the whole performance as spectators, or rather as witnesses. When a pause took place in the acting, the C. either sang or spoke verses having reference to the subject represented, which served to increase the impression or sensation produced by the performers. At times, the C. seemed to take part with or against the persons in the drama, by advice, comfort, exhortation, or dissuasion. In early times, the C. was very large, sometimes consisting of upwards of fifty persons, but afterwards it was much reduced. Its leader was termed the Coryphæus. The charge of organising it was considered a great honour among the citizens of Athens. The person appointed for this purpose was called the choragus. The honour was very expensive, as the choragus had to pay all the expenses incurred in training the members of the C. to perform their parts efficiently. They were, besides, fed and lodged by him during training-time, and he had also to provide for them masks and dresses. At times, the C. was divided, and spoke or sang antiphonally. These divisions moved from side to side of the stage, from which movement originated the naming of the single songs or stanzas, such as Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. How the musical element of the ancient C. was constituted or composed, is not known with any certainty. Possibly, it was only a kind of rhythmical declamation, and doubtless very simple. It was accompanied by flutes in unison. With the decline of the ancient tragedy, the C. also fell into disuse; and only lately has there been an attempt to produce the same on the stage in the manner of the ancients, as, for example, in Schiller's Bride of Messina. The music which has been set in modern times to some of the Greek tragedies, does not give the least idea of the original music. ago; but this is not always an advantage, for the which has a sluggish effect; while increase in the tempi must necessarily be taken much more slowly, number of voices does not always produce a greater voices from the pope's chapel, who sang at the power of sound. The C. of thirty-five well-trained coronation of Napoleon I., in the cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, produced a far greater and more wonderful effect when they entered singing the Tu es Petrus, than another Č. of hundreds of voices, and eighty harps, that had been assembled and trained for the same occasion, in expectation of surpassing all that man could imagine. The greater the number, the greater is the difficulty in obtaining unity.-C., in organ-building, is the name given to stops of the mixture species, some of which contain 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more pipes to each note, tuned at consonant intervals in relation to the fundamental stops. CHOSE IN ACTION, in the law of England, is that kind of property which consists not in possession, but in the legal right to possess. As this right can, in general, be vindicated and made avail. able only by means of an action, the property to which it relates, whether real or personal, is called a thing (res or chose) in action, to distinguish it from a thing already in possession. Money due upon bonds and bills, goods bought and not yet delivered, are examples of choses in action, as is also the right to compensation for damage occasioned by breach of contract. By the strict rule of the ancient common law, no chose in action could be assigned or granted over, because it was thought to be a great encouragement to litigiousness, if a man were allowed to make over to a stranger his right of going to law. [See CHAMPERTY.] But this nicety is now not so far regarded as to render such a transaction really ineffectual. It is, on the contrary, in substance, a valid and constant practice; though, in compliance with the ancient principle, the form of assigning a chose in action is in the nature of a declaration of trust, and an agreement to permit the assignee to make use of the name of the assigner, in order to recover possession. The king is an exception to this general rule, for he might always either grant or receive a chose in action by assignment; and our courts of equity, making the rule itself give way to the expediency, in a commercial point of view, of facilitating the transfer of property, allow the assignment of a chose in action as freely and directly as the law does that of a chose in possession.'-Stephen's Commentaries, ii. p. 45. One would imagine that the more convenient and philosophical arrangement would be, by the interposition of the legislature, to make law conform at once to equity and expediency. ... In modern times, by C. is understood the union of singers or musicians for the joint performance of a musical work. C. is also the name given to a musical composition for numerous voices, either CHO'TA NAGPO'RE, or NAGPORE THE with or without accompaniment, and intended LESS, one of the lower provinces of Bengal, conto express the united feelings of a multitude. taining five British collectorates, besides seven The musical C. is the only artistic means by tributary minor states. The area of the British which a simultaneous movement or sentiment of divisions is 26,966 square miles, and in 1881 the a multitude can be represented in the drama, pop. was 4,225,989, consisting chiefly of aboriginal the language or text being always of a simple tribes who are little removed from barbarians. rhythm, permitting only of a limited movement The country is for the most part wild and hilly, suited to the combination of a multitude. It consisting of an undulating plateau 3000 feet above is, however, not always necessary that every part the sea. Its chief products are coal, jute, tea, and of the C. should manifest the same feeling or senti- indigo; iron is also found. From the elevation of ment. Two or more parts of the C. may act against the tract, the temperature varies considerably, each other, as suits the purport of the drama. ranging in winter from 32° to 62°, and in summer Double, triple, and quadruple choruses are found in from 78° to 98°. the old Italian compositions for the church. In modern times, the C. is much used, and with great effect, in operas, especially those of Meyerbeer and Wagner. In the oratorio, the C. is of the greatest importance, and the numbers now employed to sing CHOUANS were bands of insurgent Royalists, who, during the French Revolution, organised a reactionary movement in Brittany. They obtained their name from their leader, Jean Cottereau. This 9 CHOUGH-CHRIST. person, who had been a smuggler, went by the name nostrils covered with stiff bristles directed forward, of Chouan-a corruption, it is said, of chat-huant and in their habits. The beak is longer than the ('screech-owl')-because, while he and his accom- head, strong, arched, and pointed. The tail is plices were engaged in their nocturnal work, they slightly rounded. The only European species is the were wont to be warned of their danger by some common C., sometimes called the Cornish C., or one on the watch imitating the cry of this bird. Red-legged Crow (F. graculus), a widely distributed At the period of the revolt, however, he followed but very local bird, inhabiting the Swiss Alps, the the humble occupation of a clog-maker. The first high mountains of Spain, of Greece, of India, and indications of an anti-revolutionary spirit in Brittany of Persia, the south of Siberia, the north of Africa, manifested themselves in the beginning of 1791, and some parts of the British sea-coasts; but almost when several trees of liberty were destroyed at exclusively confined to situations where there are night, and other more serious outrages committed. high cliffs. In these it generally makes its nest; These disturbances were fomented by seditious sometimes, however, in ruined towers. Its long priests. In 1792, an insurrection was planned by hooked claws enable it to cling easily to a rough the Marquis de la Rouarie, with the sanction and rock, but it seems unwilling even to set its feet on approval of the two brothers of Louis XVI. The turf. It lives in societies like the rook. It feeds on agents of the marquis entered into communications insects, berries, grubs, and grain. It is easily tamed, with Jean Cottereau-well known for the reckless becomes very familiar and forward, and exhibits audacity of his character-and other smugglers; in the highest degree the curiosity, the pilfering but having the misfortune to be arrested, the carry- disposition, and the delight in brilliant, or glittering ing out of the insurrection devolved upon the latter. objects, which also characterise others of the crow The Chouanerie, as the insurrection was called, at family.-Other species of C. are known, natives of first disgraced itself, both by the drunken licence Australia, Java, &c. Some naturalists unite the and the cruelty which marked it. After several suc- chocards and the choughs into one genus. cessful exploits of the guerrilla sort, Jean Cottereau perished in an engagement which took place on the 28th July 1794, near the wood of Misdon, the theatre of his first efforts. Before this, however, other and more illustrious leaders had appeared in Brittany to direct the movement, the chief of whom were Georges Cadoudal (q. v.) and Charette. Through their endeavours it was more widely extended, and for a time seemed likely to imperil the security of France, but was suppressed towards the close of 1799. Petty spurts of insurrection, however, broke out till about 1803, when the Chouanerie ceased for awhile. In 1814-1815, it again made its appearance on both banks of the Loire; and after the July revolution, was once more excited by the Duchess of Berry on behalf of the Duke of Bordeaux, but crushed by the energetic measures taken by M. Thiers. CHOUGH (Fregilus), a genus of birds of the crow family (Corvida), but approaching to the characters and appearance of the starlings (Sturnida). Chough. The length of the bill has induced some naturalists, among whom was Cuvier, to place them beside the hoopoes, but this is now generally regarded as an error; they agree with crows in having their CHOYA. See CHAY ROOT. CHRISM (Gr. chrisma, ointment) is the name given to the oil consecrated on Holy Thursday, in bishop, and used in baptism, confirmation, orders, and the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches, by the extreme unction. There are two kinds of C.-the one, a mixture of oil and balsam, is used in baptism, confirmation, and orders; the other, which is merely plain oil, is used in extreme unction. CHRI'SOME, the name of the white vesture laid by the priest on the child in former times at baptism, to signify its innocence. It was generally presented by the mother as an offering to the church, but if the child died before the mother was churched' again, it was used as a shroud. By a common abuse of words, C. came to be applied to the child itself. A C. child is a child in a C. cloth. As late as Jeremy Taylor (Holy Dying, c. i., s. 2), we have the following: Every morning creeps out of a dark cloud, leaving behind it an ignorance and silence deep as midnight, and undiscerned as are the phantasms that make a chrisome child to smile.' CHRIST, a title of our Saviour (see JESUS), now in general use almost as a name or as part of his name. It is originally Greek, signifies anointed, and corresponds exactly in meaning and use with the Hebrew word MESSIAH (q. v.); so that this title given to Jesus of Nazareth, is an acknowledgment of him as the Saviour long promised to the house of Jacob and to the human race. As prophets, priests, and kings were anointed on being called to their several offices (1 Kings i. 34, 39; 1 Sam. xvi. 13; Exod. xxix. 7), so the Saviour was anointed as at once prophet, priest, and king; the Holy Spirit, often represented under this figure, being given to him to qualify his human nature for all that belonged to his mediatorial office and work. The whole system of Christianity depends on the doctrine of the PERSON OF CHRIST. An essential difference necessarily exists on almost every point between the systems of doctrine maintained by those who do and by those who do not acknowledge a union of the divine and human natures in his person. Some of the early heretics maintained an opinion, which has long ceased to have any supporters, that the body of C. was not a real body, but a mere visionary appearance. See DOCETE and GNOSTICS. The opposite extreme is that of Socinians, by whom C. is regarded as a mere man; whilst Arians (q. v.) regard him as in his CHRIST. pre-existence-i.e., before his incarnation-the highest of all created beings; and according to the generally received doctrine of Christians, he is 'God and man in two distinct natures and one person.' This doctrine, of course, bears a most intimate relation to that of the TRINITY (q. v.); and all who hold the divinity of Jesus Christ, regard him as the incarnate Second Person of the Godhead. The proof of the whole doctrine may almost be said to consist simply in a proof of the divinity of C.; his real humanity, although equally important, being no longer disputed. And this proof is found, not so much in particular texts which directly assert the divinity of C.-although such texts are important-as in the multitude of texts which imply it, and admit of no reasonable or natural explanation apart from it; and in shewing that certain doctrines are taught in Scripture which cannot be maintained without this. The ancient Apollinarians, Eutychians, Monophysites, &c., regarded C. as having only one nature -a compound of the divine and human; but such a notion as that C. had only a human body, the divine nature supplying the place of a soul, is held to be subversive of the whole Christian system; and his human nature, to be real, must be viewed as consisting both of a true body and a true soul. His human nature never existed, however, apart from his divine nature, and was 'conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost.' Closely connected with this subject is that of the humiliation and consequent exaltation of C., in his character of mediator between God and man; a subject, to the former branch of which belongs the whole doctrine of the work of C. for the redemption of sinners, including the great doctrine of ATONEMENT (q. v.). To the latter belongs the doctrine of the reward of his work, in his sitting at the right hand of God, and having all things put under his feet; not only exercising dominion as king in his church, but over all things for the advancement of the salvation of his church, and of every member of it; while also He sends forth the Holy Spirit to apply to men the blessings which, as the reward of his work, He has mediatorially obtained for them; and still continuing to act as a priest, makes continual INTERCESSION (q. v.), founded upon his work and sacrifice. CHRIST, ORDER OF, IN PORTUGAL. When the Templars were expelled from France, and their property confiscated by Philippe le Bel, with the sanction of Pope Clement V., they were received into Portugal, and their order revived in 1317, under the title of the Order of our Lord Jesus Christ.' With some difficulty, Pope John XXII. was induced to sanction the new order. The Knights of the Order of Christ joined the Portuguese in all their crusades against the infidel, and also in their African and Indian expeditions, receiving in compensation continual additions to their own possessions. The grand Badge of the Portuguese prior of the order was Order of Christ. invested by Pope Calixtus III. with power equal to that of a bishop; and, as an encouragement to adventure, the knights were promised all the countries which they might discover, to be held under the protection of Portugal. At length, their wealth and power excited the jealousy of the kings of Portugal; their future acquisitions, and, subsequently, even their actual possessions, were declared to be crown possessions, and the offices of adminstrator and grand-master were transferred to the crown. A fine cloister belonging to the order is still to be seen at Tomar, to which place the seat of the order was transferred from Castro-Marino in 1366. Noble descent, and three years' military service against the infidel, were required for admission. The members took the three monkish vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, till the pope released them from the first two, on condition of their applying the third part of their revenues to the support of Tomar cloister, the priests of which were bound by the three vows. This cloister is now a theological institution for the instruction of the priests of the order. It is said that the order still possesses 26 villages and farms, and 434 prebends. It is very numerous -consisting of 6 knights of the Grand Cross, 450 commanders, and an unlimited number of knights. Catholics of noble descent alone are admitted, foreigners are excluded from participation in the revenues, being exempted in return from its rules. The star and badge of a Knight Grand Cross are represented in the illustration. CHRIST, THE PAPAL ORDER OF. This is a branch of the Portuguese order, created by Pope John XXII. It has only one class. The decoration and star are represented in the illustration. Badge of the Papal Order of Christ. CHRIST, PICTURES OF. To represent the form and countenance of C. in a manner that shall even approximate to the latent ideal in the minds of men, is unquestionably the most sublime and the most difficult work which an artist can undertake. It is the highest pictorial effort of the creative faculty. From a very early period in the history of the church, we can trace the growth of the endeavour. At first, indeed, the horror entertained for the idols of the pagans, must have inspired Christians with an aversion to images or pictures of the Saviour. Gradually, however, as paganism disappeared, and time removed C. further from his people, this feeling would subside, and the longing would arise to possess some representation of him |