clubs.

Clubs are not confined to the metropolis. Each principal C. comprises a certain definite number of members; it may be, for instance, 500, 1000, or 1500, and this number cannot be exceeded without a formal change in the rules. In some clubs, the managing committee are empowered to admit distinguished persons to membership; but the general mode of admission is by ballot, each member having a vote. In some clubs, one single black ball or 'No' suffices to exclude a candidate; but, generally, the rules are not so stringent. The members pay a sum of money on entrance, and then an annual subscription-the amounts varying much in different clubs. The entrancemoney may be required as capital, to assist in building the club-house, &c.; while the annual subscriptions, after paying current expenses, leave a surplus for future contingencies. The more important clubs comprise morning or news rooms, libraries, coffee-rooms, dining-rooms, drawing-rooms, and a very complete culinary establishment. There are no arrangements for the members to sleep at the club-houses; except at certain establishments called club-chambers, which, however, are not properly clubs. Some of the clubs are furnished with bath-rooms, card-rooms, billiard-rooms, and smoking-rooms. The restaurant department is usually very complete; everything is of the best, and is supplied to the members as nearly as can be at prime cost. In nearly all the clubs, harddrinking is discouraged. It has been ascertained at two or three of them, that the average cost of dinners is about half-a-crown, and that the wine scarcely exceeds half a pint to each diner. It may here briefly be mentioned, that some of the club-houses rank among the most elegant modern The Carlton, the Reform, buildings in London. the Conservative, and the Army and Navy clubhouses are especially to be named in this respect. Before the first Revolution, it was attempted to get up political clubs in Paris on the English plan, but they were prohibited by the police. With the meeting of the National Assembly, and the outbreak of the Revolution, political societies, about 1789, sprang into unwonted activity. These associations mostly assumed the English name such as the Club des Feuillans and the Jacobin Club; but they had quite a different character: they were popular societies. In them were concentrated the great political parties of the nation, by means of systematic organisation and affiliation. The Jacobin Club thus came in the end to embrace all France, and to rule

it.

Similar associations sprang up in Germany, Italy, Spain, and wherever the Revolution took any root. In Germany, these unions were prohibited in 1793 by a law of the empire; and the prohibition of all political unions and meetings was renewed in 1832 by an act of the Germanic Confederation. The suppression of the clubs in France followed the extinction of the Revolution, and their place has since been taken by secret societies. After the revolution of 1848, clubs revived in great force in Italy and Germany, after the style of the first French Revolution, but speedily came to an end along with that which had given them birth.

CLUBBING, in cabbages, turnips, and other plants of the genus Brassica, a diseased growth of tubercular excrescences in the upper part of the root or lower part of the stem, caused by the larvae of the Cabbage Fly (q. v.), and of other insects, by which the vigorous growth of the plant is prevented, and crops are often much injured. It is common for gardeners to cut away these excrescences, with their contained larvæ, in planting out young cabbages, &c.; and where they are not so numerous that

this plan succeeds very well. Dressings of quicklime, wood-ashes, &c., have been recommended, and appear to have proved partially successful in preventing this evil, probably by deterring the parent insect from approaching to lay her eggs; but change of crop, when practicable, is of all things the most commendable. C. is sometimes confounded with Anbury (q. v.), from which it is quite distinct. CLUB-FOOT (Lat. talipes) is a distortion or twisting of the foot by one or more of its muscles being permanently shortened. It may exist from birth, or occur in early childhood after convulsive

A, Talipes Varus; B, Talipes Equinus.

fits. Surgeons recognise four varieties of C.: turning inwards (varus), outwards (valgus), downwards with elevation of the heel (equinus), or upwards with depression of the heel (calcaneus).

As age advances, the bones alter in form from the and the foot becomes rigidly moulded in its unnatural pressure exerted upon them, the ligaments shorten, position. It cripples the person's movements, and in many instances has proved a great affliction. Lord Byron's whole life seems to have been embittered by one of his feet being inverted.

to lower the heel in talipes equinus, yet, owing Although Lorenz, in 1784, cut the tendo Achillis chiefly to the dangers of cutting across tendons, C. of London, having himself a C., after seeking relief was practically incurable till 1831, when Dr Little from many surgeons at home and abroad, found his way to Dr Stromeyer, at Erlangen. This ingenious surgeon introduced a narrow-bladed knife, and divided the tendons of the contracted muscles with such a small external wound that scarcely any inflammation resulted. Dr Little being cured, published a treatise on the subject, and at the present day no deformity of the foot is considered irremediable. However, it must be remembered that the division of tendons must be followed by judicious manipulations, and generally by the application of to its former position. Of such apparatus, Scarpa's some suitable apparatus to prevent the foot returning Shoe, as it is termed, may be mentioned as the one most frequently in use.

CLUB-MOSS. See LYCOPODIACEÆ.
CLUB-RUSH. See SCIRPUS.

CLUNCH, a name given locally by miners to any tough indurated clay, such as is sometimes found in the coal-measures, or in the newer strata. The term has also been applied to the lower and harder beds of the cretaceous rocks, which are sometimes used for the stone-work of the interior of ecclesiastical buildings.

CLUPEIDE, an important family of Malacopterous (q. v.) fishes, nearly allied to the Salmonida, and differing from them chiefly in the want of an adipose fin. They are all scaly fishes, but the scales

are very easily detached. None of the fins have any spinous rays. The ventral fins are nearly in the middle of the body. The dorsal fin is always solitary. The gill-openings are very large. The teeth are small, and generally numerous. The maxillary bones are composed of three pieces easily separated. The body is generally elongated, and much compressed; the belly thin, and almost reduced to a sharp edge, frequently denticulated by the edges or points of a series of small bones attached to the skin. The air-bladder is always large; the roe consists of a vast number of eggs. The fishes of this family are almost exclusively marine, only a few of them ascending rivers. They generally congregate in shoals, and some of them periodically visit certain coasts in vast multitudes. They are very widely diffused over the world; some of the particular species have a wide geographic range. To this family belong the Herring, Pilchard, Sprat (Garvie, Kilkie), Anchovy, Sardine, White-bait, &c. See these articles. The Herring may be regarded as the type of the order, and of the genus Clupea. But the genera most important in an economical point of view have been very differently distinguished by different ichthyologists.

CLUPESO CIDE, a family of Malacopterous fishes, so named from being regarded as exhibiting characters intermediate between those of the Clupeida (Herring, &c.) and of the Esocida (Pike, &c.). Some of them are marine, and some are fresh-water fishes. They are mostly tropical; none are British. To this family belongs the interesting genus Arapaima (q. v.), and the genera Heterotis and Butirinus, containing fishes of very curious structure and appearance, highly prized for the table.

CLU'SIA (named in honour of the great botanist L'Ecluse or Clusius), a genus of tropical trees and

search of chinks or decayed parts where they may obtain nourishment; and if it cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, a root is sometimes sent straight down to the ground, and in due time becomes a kind of stem. The fruit is very curious, a subglobular capsule, with a number of cells, opening as by meridian lines from top to base. C. rosea, a native of the West Indies and tropical parts of America, yields an abundant resin, which is used as an external application in veterinary medicine, and for covering boats instead of pitch. A great quantity of resin exudes from the disk of the flowers of C. insignis, the WAX-FLOWER of Demerara, which is used to make a gently stimulating and soothing plaster. This is one of the productions of Demerara, to which the colonists, in preparation for the 'Great Exhibition' (of 1862), sought to draw general attention.

CLUSO'NÉ, a town of Lombardy, Northern Italy, situated near the left bank of the Serio, 17 miles north-east of Bergamo. It has manufactures of linen, a trade in corn and iron, and in the neighbourhood are vitriol works and copper foundries. Pop. 3000.

sometimes called, Compound Piers, form one of the CLUSTERED COLUMNS, or, as they are richest features in Gothic ecclesiastical architecture. The columns or shafts are sometimes attached to each other throughout their whole length, sometimes only at the base and capital. When surrounded by floriated fillets, they have been very aptly compared by Sir Walter Scott to 'bundles of lances that garlands have bound.'

CLWYD, a river of North Wales, rises in the Bronbanog Hills, in the south-west of Denbighshire, and lastly north, through Denbigh and Flint shires, and runs 30 miles, first south, then east-north-east, past Ruthin, St Asaph, and Rhuddlan, into the Irish Sea. Below Ruthin, and between barren hills, lies the fertile, populous, and level vale of the C., 15 by 5 to 7 miles. At St Asaph, the C. receives the Elwy, 20 miles long, from the west, and increases much in size. It then enters the fertile and extensive marsh of Rhuddlan, and falls into the sea by a small estuary. It is navigable for vessels of 70 tons up to Rhuddlan, a distance of two miles from its mouth.

CLYDE, a river in the south of Scotland, the only great British river, besides the Severn, flowing west. Commercially it is the most important river in Scotland, and the romantic beauty of its scenery is widely celebrated. It rises by several large streams in the semicircular range of the Lead, Lowther, and Moffat Hills, and drains the shires of Lanark, Renfrew, and Dumbarton. The main and southmost source, the Daer, runs north, and receives the Powtrail, the Clyde (a smaller stream, after junction with which, the main stream is called the C.), and other streams, preserving its mountain character to Roberton, upwards of 20 miles below the source of the Daer. The C. then bends round Tinto Hill towards Biggar," from whence it flows north-west, west, and south-west, to about 4 miles above Lanark, thence pursuing a north-west course through Lanarkshire, and between Dumbarton and Renfrew shires, past Lanark, Hamilton, Glasgow, Renfrew, and Dumbarton, near which town it opens into the Firth of Clyde. In this course, it receives a number of streams, and flows through a rich, fertile, wooded valley, often extending into level plains, and often with bold wooded banks. From

In very high floods, the waters of the Clyde sometimes overflow in the boggy ground there, and a portion runs into the Biggar Water, and so into the Tweed.

2 miles above to 4 miles below Lanark occur the celebrated Falls of the C., a series of cascades and rapids, the largest in Scotland for quantity of water the total descent, in the course of six miles, being 230 feet over old red sandstone rocks, amid very picturesque scenery. Three of the Falls are above, and one below Lanark. Bonniton Linn, two miles above Lanark, is a cascade of 30 feet, with some parts only 4 feet broad. Corra Linn, half a mile below the last, is the grandest fall, forming three distinct leaps in all, 84 feet high. Dundaf Fall is 10 feet high. Stonebyres Linn, two miles below Corra Linn, forms three distinct falls in all 70 feet. Below Glasgow, the C. expands into an estuary, navigable by the largest vessels, and at Greenock it attains a breadth of about 4 miles. Opposite this point it communicates with the Gareloch, and a little below, with Loch Long on the north. Its course, which from Glasgow has been west-northwest, now turns suddenly south, in which direction, inclining a little to the west, it continues to flow between Argyle and Bute, and Cantire on the west, and Renfrew and Ayr shires on the east, until it becomes identified with the North Channel at Ailsa Craig, where its breadth is about 30 miles. The C. from its source to Glasgow is, by its windings, 75 miles long, and from Glasgow to the south end of Cantire, 48 miles. Its basin occupies 1500 square miles, and consists of carboniferous strata and trap rocks, the latter chiefly forming the bordering mountains. Floods sometimes raise its waters 20 feet, and it has changed its course at Renfrew, which was once close to it. Clydesdale, or the valley of the C., is noted for its coal and iron mines, orchards, and horses. Bell, in 1812, launched on the C. the first boat in Europe successfully propelled by steam.

CLYDE, LORD. See CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN. CLY'STER (Gr., from klyzo, I wash out), called also enema, a medicine administered in the liquid form by the rectum, or lower end of the intestine. It is used either for the purpose of procuring evacuation of the bowels, or of conveying stimulating or nourishing substances into the system. For the latter purpose, wine and beef-tea, or milk, in quantities of a few ounces at a time, are employed; for the former, simple warm or cold water in sufficiently large quantity to distend the bowels, and produce

evacuation; or in special cases, various cathartics may be used in addition, such as colocynths, aloes, castor oil, or turpentine made into an emulsion with yolk of egg, and sometimes carminatives, to expel air. Narcotic clysters are also employed, but should only be used under medical superintendence. An injecting syringe, with a flexible tube, and a double-action valve, is usually employed for the administration of this remedy.

CLYTEMNE'STRA, in Homeric legend, the daughter of King Tyndareus and of Leda, and the twin-sister of Helena, became the wife of Agamemnon, and bore him a son, Orestes, and two absence of Agamemnon on his expedition to Troy, During the daughters, Iphigenia and Electra. she formed a connection with Ægisthus, murdered her husband on his return, and reigned for seven years with Ægisthus, till she was murdered by her

own son, Orestes.

CNI'DUS, or GNIDOS, a city on the promontory of Triopion (now Cape Krio), in Caria, in Asia Minor, a Lacedæmonian colony, and one of the six cities of the Doric league. C. (according to Strabo) had two ports, one of which could be closed. In front of what was the town, lies a lofty island, about 600 yards long, which was connected with the mainland by a causeway (now a sandy isthmus). The southern port was formed by two moles, carried into the sea to the depth of nearly 100 feet, one of which is nearly perfect at the present day. The city was famous for several temples of Venus, who was therefore sometimes called the Cnidian goddess. One of these temples contained the famous statue of the naked Venus by Praxiteles. It was of Parian marble, and so beautiful, that Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, offered, in return for this master-piece of Grecian sculpture, to pay the entire debt of the city, which was very large. The Cnidians, in the excess of their devotion to art, refused. During the wars in ancient times, C. was often mercilessly plundered. The site of the city is

'covered with ruins.'

COACH is a general name for a vehicle drawn by horses, designed for the conveyance of passengers, as distinguished from a wagon or cart, for the conveyance of goods. Coaches or enclosed carriages, drawn on wheels, and intended for passengers, were inventions which have been claimed by Hungary,

England, Italy, France, Spain, and Germany. The name is derived by Wedgwood from Fr. coucher, to lie, which becomes in Dutch koetsen, whence koetse or koets-wagen, a litter or carriage in which you may recline. The earliest record found by Beckmann relates to about the year 1280, when Charles of Anjou entered Naples, and his queen rode in a caretta-apparently a small but highly decorated

car, from which the modern charet or chariot was derived, as well as other vehicles named chares and chariettes. It is believed that most of these vehicles had broad wheels, the only form suited for the wretched roads of those ages; and it is certain that all those of early date were open overhead. Many of the coaches used by the continental princes and nobles in the 16th c. were

closed only to this extent that they had canopies supported by ornamental pillars, and curtains of cloth, silk, or leather, which could be drawn easily aside. A glass C., or C. with glass windows, is specially mentioned as being used by an Infanta of Spain in 1631. The traces of the coaches were at first made of rope; those only belonging to the highest personages were made of leather. It is believed to have been in the time of Louis XIV. that coaches were first suspended by leathern straps, in order to insure ease of motion.

The first C. ever seen in England is said to have been one made in 1555 by Walter Rippon for the Earl of Rutland; and in 1564, the same builder made a showy vehicle for Queen Elizabeth. Later in the reign, the royal carriages had sliding panels, so that the queen could shew herself to her loving subjects whenever she desired. During the closing years of Elizabeth's reign, and early in the 17th c., the use of pleasure-carriages extended rapidly in England. The coaches had first to struggle against the opposition of the boatmen on the rivers, and then against that of the sedan owners and bearers; but they gradually came into very general use. The successive steps whereby the coaches of those days gave way to the elegant vehicles of the present, need not be traced in detail, even if there were the means to do so.

The following are some of the chief kinds of pleasure-carriages. The Dennet is a two-wheeled vehicle for one horse, with a jointed hood or head covered with leather, and a driving-box. The Stanhope bears some resemblance to the dennet. The Tilbury is in like manner a two-wheeled vehicle for one horse; but it has pliable leathern braces between the springs and the body of the vehicle, together with suspension brackets. The Cabriolet belongs to the same class as the tilbury. The name Cab is an abbreviation of cabriolet, but it has come to be applied to a four-wheeled vehicle. The Curricle is a two-wheeled vehicle

for two horses; there are no shafts; but a pole, fixed to a frame which supports the body, passes between the horses, and is suspended from a metal bar resting on their backs. The Phaeton is a four-wheeled vehicle which may be drawn either by one or two horses; its front body is something like that of a dennet or stanhope, and behind this is an open seat, supported on a kind of large box. The Coach is a closed four-wheeled vehicle for two or more horses, with two seats inside, and a skilfully constructed arrangement of springs to insure ease of motion. The Chariot, or chaise of modern days, usually differs from the C. in having only one seat. The Landau is a C. made to open occasionally. The Barouche is permanently open, with only a leathern hood or head over it. The Britzschka is a kind of small barouche. In addition to these, our age has witnessed the manufacture of the Brougham, a miniature coach usually for two persons, but in which four may be accommodated; and the Clarence, a pair-horse carriage with movable glazed panels and hood, and for two or more persons.

elasticity; and the various pieces of iron-work require careful adjustment, especially the axles. The covering of the upper part of the body of a C. with leather is one of the most difficult parts of the manufacture; one single hide is employed, the leather being worked round the corners by repeated currying while wet; and all must be rendered smooth, without even a puncture. The best coaches receive as many as 20 to 30 coats of oil-paint; and the polishing processes are numerous and carefully conducted. The carving, gilding, herald-painting, lace and fringe work, metal ornamentation, &c.—all are among the best examples of their respective handicrafts.

English carriages are considered to be the best in the world; none else combine so much strength with an equal degree of beauty. The artisans employed in this trade, especially coach-body makers and coach-spring makers, command a very high rate of wages.

COADJU'TOR (Lat.), a fellow-worker not as principal but as second, an assistant. Technically, it is applied in ecclesiastical law to one appointed to assist a bishop, whom age or infirmity has disabled. By 52 Geo. III. c. 62, coadjutors to bishops and archbishops in Ireland are empowered to exercise all the powers of their principals except that of presenting to benefices. See EXECUTOR.

COAGULATION, the amorphous (q. v.) solidification of a liquid, or part of a liquid, as when the caseine of milk is solidified by rennet in making Cheese (q. v.), or the white of an egg by boiling. The process varies in various substances. Albumen, or the white of an egg, coagulates at a temperature of 160°. Milk is coagulated or curdled by the action of rennet or by acids. The fibrin in the blood, chyle, and lymph of animals is coagulated by the separation of these fluids from the living body. See BLOOD.

COAHUILA, a state of the Mexican Confederaby the Rio Bravo del Norte, in lat. 24° 30° N., tion, is separated from Texas, in the United States, and long. 100-103° E. It contains 50,890 square miles, and (1882) 130,026 inhabitants. The capital is Saltillo, with a population of 8105; there are besides the towns of Coahuila and Santa Rosa. It possesses some silver mines; but it is valuable chiefly for its pasturage.

COA'ITA. See ATELES.

COAL, in the sense of a piece of glowing fuel (and hence a piece of fuel, whether dead or alive), is a word common to all the languages of the Gothic stock (Icel. kol, Ger. kohle), and seems allied to the Lat. caleo, to be hot; as also to glow, and kiln. The different sorts of fuel are distinguished by prefixes, as charcoal, pit-coal, sea-coal; but in England, owing to the absorbing importance of mineral or pit-coal, the word C. alone has come to be used in this special signification (Ger. steinkohlen, Fr. charbon de terre).

is always of a black or blackish-brown colour; some of the varieties have a very considerable degree of vitreous or resinous lustre, and some are very destitute of lustre; some have a shell-like fracture, and some have a sort of slaty structure, and are readily broken into cubical or rhom boidal fragments. The precise characters of C. as a mineral species are not easily defined, and both in Britain and other countries important cases have occupied courts of law, in which this

difficulty was strongly felt, as in the great Scottish lawsuit concerning the Torbanehill Mineral (q. v.). C., indeed, is rather a commercial than a scientific term, but in a general way we may define it as a fossil fuel of black colour and stony consistency, which, when heated in close vessels, is converted into coke with the escape of volatile liquids and gases. The variety known as blind coal or anthracite no doubt gives off scarcely any volatile matter, but this is because it has undergone a natural distillation through metamorphism or other cause. We may therefore divide C. into two primary divisions, namely, (1) Anthracite, which does not, and (2) Bituminous C., which does flame when kindled. Anthracite (q. v.) sometimes contains as much as 94, and if we exclude the ash, 98 per cent. of carbon, and as this element decreases in amount it graduates into a bituminous coal The term anthracite is, however, still applied to some coals which do not contain more than 80 per cent. of carbon. Various synonyms, such as stone C., glance C., culm, and Welsh C., are also used to designate this substance, which is used chiefly for smelting purposes and for raising steam. It is difficult to kindle, but gives out a high heat in burning. Bituminous C. includes an almost endless number of varieties, one of the best marked being cannel or parrot C. Cannel C. is so called from burning with a bright flame like a candle, and the name parrot C. is given to it in Scotland from the crackling or chattering noise it makes when burned. That of different localities varies much in appearance, but it is most commonly dull and earthy, or with only a slight lustre ; some examples are, however, bright and shining. In texture it is nearly always compact, and certain beds of it admit of being polished in slabs of considerable size, which approach black marble in appearance. Of this material vases, inkstands, boxes, &c., are made. Cannel C., from the large percentage of ash which it contains, is not suitable for house fires, and is for the most part consumed in making gas, of which it yields from 8000 to 15,000 cubic feet per ton. When distilled at a low red-heat it yields paraffin oil. The other varieties of bituminous C. are so numerous that, as an Admiralty report states, there are as many as 70 denominations of it imported into London alone. Still, among these there are three leading kinds-1. Caking C., which cakes or fuses into one mass in the fire. It breaks into small uneven fragments, and is found largely at Newcastle and some other localities. 2. Splint or hard C., occurring plentifully in Scotland, which is hard, and has a kind of slaty fracture. It is not very easily kindled, but when lighted makes a clear lasting fire. 3. Cherry or soft C., which breaks easily into small irregular cubes, has a beautiful shining lustre, is readily kindled, and gives out a cheerful flame and heat. It is common in Staffordshire. Brown C. or Lignite (q. v.), though inferior to true C., is nevertheless an important fuel in some countries in default of a better kind.

852 A.D.

The use of C. does not seem to have been known to the ancients; nor is it well known at what time it began to be used for fuel. Some say that it was used by the ancient Britons; and at all events it was to some extent an article of household consumption during the Anglo-Saxon period as early as There seems to be reason for thinking that England was the first European country in which C. was used to any considerable extent. About the end of the 13th c., it began to be employed in London, but at first only in the arts and manufactures; and the innovation was complained of as injurious to human health. In 1316, the parliament petitioned the king, Edward II., to pro

hibit the use of C., and a proclamation was accordingly issued against it; but owing to the high price of wood, its use soon became general in London. It was for a long time known there as Sea-C., because imported by sea.

Several theories as to the mode of the origin of C. have been put forth from time to time. The one now generally believed in is that the rank and luxuriant vegetation which prevailed during the carboniferous age grew and decayed upon land but slightly raised above the sea; that by slow subsidence this thick layer of vegetable matter sunk below the water, and became gradually covered with sand, mud, and other mineral sediment; that then, by some slight upheaval of the sea bottom or other process, a land surface was once more formed, and covered with a dense mass of plants, which in course of time decayed, sank, and became overlaid with silt and sand as before. At length, thick masses of stratified matter would accumulate, producing great pressure, and this, acting along with chemical changes, would gradually mineralise the vegetable layers into coal. Some experiments made by Dr Lindley a few years ago, shewed that of a large number of plants kept immersed in water for two years, the ferns, lycopodiums, and pines were those which had the greatest powers of resisting decay, and C. appears to be mainly composed of the substance of the ancient representatives of these three orders of plants. The interesting fact has also been lately proved by Huxley, Morris, Carruthers, and others, that in many instances the bituminous matter in C. is almost wholly formed of the spore cases and spores of plants allied to our club-mosses and ferns.

As will be seen from the following table, wood, peat, lignite or brown C., and true C. indicate by their composition the changes which vegetable matter undergoes by decay and pressure; and a table in which a considerable number of examples of each substance could be given would shew how gradually these substances pass into each other:

In each of these bodies there is usually a small percentage of nitrogen, which in the above table has not been separated. In passing from wood or peat to C., the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen decreases, these substances being given off in the form of marsh-gas and carbonic acid in the process of decay.

Since the prosperity of our great national industries, as well as much of our domestic comfort, depends on the continuance of an abundant supply of cheap fuel, much anxiety has arisen in Great Britain of late years regarding the future supply and price of coal. Since the fall of 1872, a great rise has taken place in its price. This is partly owing to the unusually high rate of miners' wages which has prevailed, and partly to the fact that some of the richest and most easily worked English There is coal-seams are becoming exhausted. therefore some cause for apprehension, yet, as the following figures taken from the estimate in the report of the royal commission on C., dated 1871, will shew, we have still vast supplies of fossil fuel.

Taking into account the coal which probably exists under the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and other superincumbent strata in the United Kingdom, the coal commissioners increase their estimate of the quantity still available for use to 146,480