castes the labor of cultivation. "Each caste is to some extent a trade-guild, a mutual assurance society, and a religious sect. As a trade union it insists on the proper training of the youth of its craft, regulates the wages of its members, deals with trade delinquents, supplies courts of arbitration and promotes good fellowship by social gatherings. The caste

or guild exercises a surveillance over each of its members, from the close of childhood until death. If a man behaves well he will rise to an honored place in his caste; and the desire for such local distinctions exercises an important influence in the life of a Hindu. But the caste has its punishments as well as its rewards. The fine usually takes the form of a compulsory feast to the male members of the caste. This is the ordinary means of purification or of making amends for breaches of the caste code." A person who has become an "out-caste," or lost his caste position and privileges, may generally recover them in this way. In southern India the castes are divided into two large classes, those of the right hand and those of the left hand. The suggestion has been made that this is a survival of Buddhism.

Bibliography.- Bhattacharya, Jogendra Nath., Hindu Castes and Sects' (1896); Buchanan, F. H., A Journey from Madras' (London 1807); Crooke, W., Things Indian) (London 1906); Geiger, Civilization of the Eastern Iranians' (tr. 1885); Hopkins, The Mutual Relations of the Four Castes according to the Manavadharmasastram' (1881); Rhys Davids, I. W., 'Buddhist India' (London 1911); Risley, Census of India Report' (Chap. XI, Vol. I, Calcutta 1901); Senart, 'Les Castes dans l'Inde (Paris 1896).

CASTEL VETRANO, vä-trä'no, Sicily, town in the province and 27 miles southeast of Trapani, on a rocky hill. It lies in a fertile district, is regularly built, has several churches, grammar school with municipal museum of antiquities, many of whose objects were found at Selinus, in the vicinity. Grapevines, olives and rice are extensively cultivated. The white pine produced in the neighborhood is esteemed the best in Sicily. Articles of coral and alabaster are manufactured here. Pop. 25,000.

CASTÉLAR, käs-tā-lär', Y RIPOLL, Emilio, Spanish orator and statesman: b. Cadiz, 8 Sept. 1832; d. Murcia, 25 May 1899. He was left an orphan when quite young and his early life was spent in boarding schools. At the Institute of Alicante (1845-48) he was distinguished for his ability to memorize, for his intellectual grasp and his oratorical powers. His knowledge of philosophy, history, literature and the Latin and Greek classics was very extensive, in fact, much more so than of law, which he went to Madrid to study in 1848. He obtained his degree in law in 1852 and that of doctor of literature the following year. On leaving the university Castelar entered political life as a member of the Progressive party and before the end of the year he had already become a noted character, thanks to his wonderful oratorical gifts, and one of the shining lights of republican democracy. His youthful speeches were collected, published and spread broadcast by the ultra-Republicans, and the press of Madrid opened its arms to him. He,

accepted a position as editorial writer on El Tribuno, which he left some time later, when the latter went over to the monarchy. He joined the staff of the Soberanía Nacional, which he also left when the latter became altogether radical. Finding La Discusion, whose staff he next joined as chief editorial writer, too timid in its advocacy of Republican principles, he founded La Democracia, dedicating it to the overthrow of the monarchy and the house of Bourbon (1864-66). He took part with the Democrats against the Socialists. It was at this period that he wrote and published, in the Ateneo, 'La historia de la civilización en los cinco primeros siglos del cristianismo' (1855-58). In the latter year he became professor of Spanish history in the Central University. This gave him an opportunity to preach from two great tribunals, the university and the press, his democratic ideas. He was finally deprived of his chair in the university on account of his radical republicanism. The substitute professors in the department of Spanish history at once resigned out of sympathy with Castelar; and this was followed by a revolutionary demonstration which was put down with considerable bloodshed (10 April 1865). But the revolutionary fire was still smouldering and very active plotting went on in secret. Castelar, arrested in 1866 for participating in revolutionary activity, was tried and condemned to be hanged; but he succeeded in escaping, in disguise, to France, where he continued his editorial, journalistic and literary work and wrote Semblanzas, Un año en Paris, 'Recuerdos de Italia,' 'Vida de Lord Byron' and 'Introducción al estudio de la historia.' He was one of the most active spirits among the revolutionary party in Paris, and on the triumph of the latter in 1868 he returned to Spain, resumed his chair in the university and was elected a member of the Cortes, where he became the leading advocate of republicanism and the most distinguished orator of the nation. On the establishment of the republic in 1873 Castelar became Minister of State. He was instrumental in the abolishment of the military orders of Santiago, Calatrava, Alcántara, Montesa and San Juan de Jerusalén; and later on, those of Carlos III, Maria Luisa and Isabel la Católica. On 6 Sept. 1873 he was elected president of the executive, a position he held until the following January, when a counter_revolution once more forced him into exile in France, where he continued actively his literary work. He finished his 'Historia del movimiento republicano en Europa' and the second part of 'Recuerdos de Italia, La redención del esclavo' (poem) and 'El ocaso de la libertad.' Returning to Spain in 1876 he was elected to the Cortes, of which he remained an active and prominent figure for 17 years, always dreaming of the ultimate establishment of the Spanish republic by peaceful means. Thus his discountenancing revolutionary means to gain revolutionary ends helped the cause of the monarchy and of law and order, although he continued the leader of the opposition. Gradually he greatly modified his republican and revolutionary attitude until he had come, in 1893, to see that Spain was not yet fit for any other than a monarchical form of government.

Castelar was the mouthpiece of the Repub

lican ideal in Spain, which his brilliant oratorical gifts, his writings and his ceaseless activity kept constantly before the people. He fought for universal suffrage and the abolition of slavery in Porto Rico; he defended the principle of religious liberty; advocated the election by popular vote of the alcaldes; and he was a powerful champion of universal military service. He strongly influenced the politics of his age in Spain; and this influence extended to all the Latin countries in Europe and America. His literary works, which are very voluminous, include, in addition to those already mentioned, the following: La revolución religiosa'; 'Perfiles de personajes y bocetos de ideas'; 'Estudios históricos sobre la Edad Media'; 'La fórmula .del progreso); 'Defensa de la fórmula del progreso); La cuestión de Oriente'; 'Cuestiones políticas y sociales'; 'Cartas sobre política europea'; 'Recuerdos y esperanzas); La rendición del esclavo'; 'La hermana de la caridad'; 'Historia de un corazón'; 'Discursos politicos y literarios; Fra Filippo Lippi'; Tragedias de la historia'; 'El suspiro del Moro'; 'Discurso de recepción en la Academia Española'; 'Discurso en la Coruña sobre literatura gallega'; 'Galería historica de mujeres célebres.'

CASTELEIN, käs'tē-lin, Matthiis de, Dutch poet: b. Pamele (Oudenarde) 1485; d. 1549. He was the acknowledged lawgiver and pattern of all the Dutch rhetoricians of his time in his 'De Cunst van Rhetoriken' (1555). He composed many plays, but only two of them were published; one of these is the 'Story of Pyramus and Thisbe.' He wrote also a volume of 'Diversche Liedkens,' in melodious verse.

or

CASTELLAMARE, käs-těl-lä-mä'rē, CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA, Italy, a seaport town on the Gulf of Naples, 17 miles southeast of the city, at the beginning of the peninsula of Sorrento, and 10 miles northeast of that town. It extends for a mile along the shore at the base and on the slope of a spur of Monte Sant' Angelo (4,735 feet high), a mountain which commands a splendid prospect. From its pleasant surroundings, shady walks, sea baths and other attractions it is a favorite summer resort of the Neapolitans, as well as tourists, and has several good hotels, one of them formerly a royal residence. The harbor is protected by a mole and there is an arsenal with a dockyard. It contains a technical school, a theatre and a large royal arsenal. The principal imports are grain, coal and iron; the principal exports wine and fruit. fisheries are important, and there are macaroni, soap, leather and cotton factories. The town owes its name to a castle built by the Emperor Frederick II in the 13th century. Castellamare occupies the site of the ancient Stabiæ, overwhelmed, with Herculaneum and Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, 79 A.D.; and it was here that the elder Pliny met his death by approaching too near the mountain while it was in a state of eruption. The modern town was afterward built from the ruins of Stabiæ. Here in 1799 the French general, Macdonald, defeated the allied English and Neapolitan forces. Pop. about 33,000.

The

CASTELLAN, or CHÂTELAIN, properly the owner or commander of a castle. În

Flanders and France the title went with the possession of certain districts, and in Normandy and Burgundy châtelains ranked next after bailiffs, with both civil and military authority. In Germany the châtelains were Imperial officers with military and civil jurisdiction in fortified places. Consult Luchaire, 'Manuel des institutions françaises (Paris 1892).

CASTELLANE, käs'těl-län', Esprit Victor Elizabeth Boniface, COUNT OF, French marshal: b. Paris, 21 March 1788; d. Lyons, 16 Sept. 1862. He entered the army in 1804 and took part in most of Napoleon's campaigns. After the Restoration he became colonel of the Hussars of the Royal Guard. He fought in Spain (1823) and at the siege of Antwerp (1832), and as lieutenant-general commanded the Army of the Pyrenees. In the February revolution (1848) he lost his command, and in consequence went over to Louis Napoleon. In 1850 he became commander at Lyons and in 1852 marshal and senator. His 'Memoirs,' published in 1896, though crude in style, are valuable for their mass of minute detail.

CASTELLANETA, cäs-těl-lä-na-ta, Italy, city of Bari delle Puglie province, 24 miles northwest of Taranto. It is a thriving trade centre for local produce, olives, fruit, wool and cotton, and is a bishop's see with an interesting cathedral. Pop. 11,550.

CASTELLI, käs-těl'lē, Benedetto, a pupil of Galileo: b. Brescia 1577; d. Rome 1644. He was a monk and became abbot of a Benedictine monastery of the congregation of Monte Cassino. He afterward became a professor of mathematics and taught with distinguished success both at the University of Pisa and at the Collegio della Sapienza at Rome. Torricelli was his pupil. He distinguished himself in hydraulics and rendered important services to Urban VIII in his projects for the regulation of Italian rivers. He may be regarded as the founder of that branch of hydraulics which relates to the velocity of running water, though his fundamental principle, that the velocity is proportional to the height of the reservoir, is inaccurate, and was demonstrated to be so by Torricelli, who showed that the velocity is proportioned, not to the height, but to the square root of the height. In his investigations as to the measurement of time Castelli made use of the pendulum. His principal work, entitled Della Misura dell' acque correnti,' published at Rome in 1628, was translated into French in 1664.

CASTELLI, Ignaz Franz, Austrian dramatist: b. Vienna, 6 May 1781; d. there, 5 Feb. 1862. He was educated for the law, but following his inclination for the drama, gained access to the orchestras of theatres as a player of the violin. His circumstances compelling him to look out for some means of support, he accepted various subordinate offices, but using his leisure in composing patriotic songs for the Austrian army, he was brought into favorable notice. His songs having given umbrage to Napoleon, he fled to Hungary. In 1815 he accompanied Count Cavriana as secretary to Paris, and afterward he served in the same capacity with Baron Münch von Bellinghausen in Upper Italy. Because of the success of his opera, 'Die Schweizer familie? (music by

Weigl), he was appointed court poet at the Kärntnerthor Theatre. In 1840 he retired with a pension and the office of state librarian. The author of many poems, popular songs and miscellaneous writings, he was at various times connected with the press of Vienna, but is best known by his voluminous productions for the stage. Over 100 plays, partly adapted from the French, partly original, are attributed to him. He was a zealous collector of plays, handbills of the theatre and portraits of actors, covering the years from 1600-1862. The collections are now at Vienna in the Imperial Library. In 1848 more than 100,000 copies of his political pamphlets in favor of the Revolution found eager purchasers. His most popular drama was 'Die Waise und der Mörder.' His last publication was his 'Memoiren meines Lebens' (4 vols., 1861-62).

CASTELLIO, käs-těl'li-ō, Sebastianus, French theologian and humanist, translator of the Bible into pure and classic Latin; he was a native of Dauphiny: b. 1515; d. Basel 1563, in exile and in extreme poverty. His family name was Châteillon, which he latinized after the fashion of that time into Castellio. At the invitation of Calvin he settled at Geneva, where he became professor of the ancient classic literatures, but because of differences regarding questions of religious belief he was deposed from the professorship and banished from Geneva. His Latin version of the Bible retained little or nothing of the profoundly Hebrew character of the scriptural writings and was justly censured by Calvin and the Calvinists. Theodore Beza, to offset this "work of Satan," as he called it, made a Latin translation of the Bible himself, striving to retain the Oriental flavor of the original in every respect. Castellio also wrote a book in defense of the right to hold and publish views deemed by Church and state to be heretical; this, too, evoked a reply from Beza. Castellio wrote also a tractate on Predestination Opposed to the Views of Calvin'; it was published after the author's death by Faustus Socinus in 1578.

CASTELLO, käs-těl'lō, Gabriele-Lancilotto, Sicilian antiquary, PRINCE OF TORREMUZZA: b. Palermo 1727; d. 1794. He studied science and archæology. He formed a splendid collection of the remains of antiquity found in Sicily. He bequeathed a large quantity of books, etc., to the public library of Palermo. At his death he was honorary member of the Royal Society and of the Academy at Paris. His important works are Storia d'Alesa, antica città di Sicilia) (Palermo 1753); 'Inscrizioni Palermitane (1758); Siciliæ populorum veteres nummi (1781); Siciliæ et adjacent veteres Inscriptiones' (1769).

CASTELLOBRANCO, Camillo, Portuguese novelist and poet: b. Lisbon, 16 March 1825; d. 6 June 1890. He studied in Oporto and Coimbra with great irregularity and entered the career of letters. After a short journalistic career in Oporto and Lisbon he entered the Episcopal Seminary and took minor orders. His restless nature prevented his adherence to this course and he abandoned it to resume a feverish literary activity. Having lost his sight, and suffering from a nervous disease, he committed suicide. He is the most popular

of the modern romancists of Portugal, and at the same time the most national in tone, spirit and form. He composed romantic novels, of which the most notable are O Romance de un Homem Rico' and the series, Novellas do Minho. To the romances he owes his reputation. His novels of manners created a new style of narrative, in which he describes with great nicety the social and domestic life of Portugal in the 19th century. In the domain of history, biography and literary criticism he is the author of Noites de Lamege'; 'Cousas leves e pesadas'; Cavar em ruinas'; Memorias do Bispo do Grão Para); and 'Bohemia do Espirito. His verses are mediocre. His collected works have been published by the Companhia Editora of Lisbon. Consult Freitas, Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco (São Paulo 1889); Osorio, Paula, Camillo, a sua vida, o suo genio, a sua obra' (Oporto 1908).

CASTELLON, käs-těl-yōn', Francisco, Nicaraguan revolutionist: b. about 1815; d. 2 Sept. 1855. He was the leader in a revolt at Leon in 1853, which was unsuccessful, and fled to Honduras, whence he returned in June of the next year. It was largely by his invitation that the filibustering expedition under William Walker (q.v.) went from the United States in 1854. See NICARAGUA, HISTORY.

CASTELLÓN DE LA PLANA, Spain, capital of the province of Castellón, 40 miles north-northeast of Valencia. It stands in a large and fertile plain, watered by the Mijares, from which an ample supply of water is brought into the town by an aqueduct supposed to have been constructed by Jayme I of Aragon, who, in 1233, wrested Castellón from the Moors. It is well built and has considerable manufactures of sailcloth and woolen and hempen fabrics, ropes, porcelain, leather, cork, etc., and some trade in hemp, grain and fruit. The painters Ribalta, father and son, were born here. The original town occupied a hill north of the present site. Pop. of town 32,309; of province, 322,537.

de

CASTELNAU, kas-těl'no, Edouard Curières de, French general: b. SaintAffrique 1851. He entered the Saint-Cyr military school in 1869, and in the following year, when the Franco-Prussian War broke out, he was given a commission. He served through the whole campaign and emerged with the rank of captain. During the Commune he took part in the street fighting. For over 40 years de Castelnau was one of that little band of French soldiers - Joffre, Gallieni, Foch, etc.who devoted their entire strength to the problem of preparing the army against a repetition of the disasters of 1870-71. He rose through the successive grades, passed the Ecole de Guerre, was promoted general in 1906 and became chief of staff to General Joffre when the latter was designated (in 1913) as commanderin-chief in case of war. The two men had long worked together and closely studied all possible aspects of a future war. At the commencement of the European War de Castelnau was placed in command of the Army of Lorraine, charged with the defense of Nancy. His forces were drawn up across the Gap of Nancy to prevent the army of the Crown Prince of Bavaria from turning the Allied front. The

fiercest fighting on this sector began 6 Sept. 1914, when the Bavarians were incited to make a desperate, overwhelming assault. Without intermission the battle raged for three days. By the 12th the main fighting was over; Nancy was saved; de Castelnau's resistance contributed directly to the victory of the Marne. In 1915 he commanded the French offensive in Champagne and was made chief of the general staff when General Joffre was appointed commander-in-chief of all the armies of France. General de Castelnau lost three sons on the battlefield during the first two years of the war.

CASTELNAU, Francis, COMTE DE, French traveler; b. London 1812; d. Melbourne, Victoria, 4 Feb. 1880. He traveled extensively in Canada, the United States and Mexico, and under the protection of the French government undertook an exploration of South America in 1843, accompanied by D'Osery, a botanist; Weddell, a botanist; and Deville, a taxidermist. After his return to France, in 1847, Count Castelnau published Expedition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (1850-51), a work in six volumes, of which one was by M. Weddell. Castelnau afterward traveled in Arabia, and was successively consul at Bahia, the Cape of Good Hope and Singapore, and at the time of his death was consul-general at Melbourne.

CASTELNAUDARY, käs-těl-nō-dä-rē, France, a town in the department of Aude, on a height above the Canal du Midi, 22 miles west-northwest of Carcassonne. It was built by the Visigoths on the site of a rich town which had been destroyed, and was named Castellum Novum Arianorum, from which its present name is corrupted. It rises in the form of an amphitheatre, and was anciently the capital of a district and strongly fortified. It was the scene of much barbarity by the inquisitors in 1237, was almost totally destroyed by Edward the Black Prince in 1355 and is famous for the battle fought beneath its walls in 1632 between the troops of Louis XIII and those of Gaston of Orleans, which resulted in favor of Louis chiefly in consequence of the inactivity 'of the Duke of Orleans. The Duke of Montmorency was wounded in this battle and taken prisoner, and afterward executed at Toulouse by order of the King, Louis XIII. It is indifferently built, has manufactures of coarse cloth, several distilleries and tanneries and one of the largest grain and flour markets in the south of France. It contains specimens of mediæval architecture, among them the church of Saint Michel (14th century). Pop. about 10,000.

CASTELNOVO, käs-těl-nō'vō, Leo di. See PULLE, LEOPOLDO, COUNT.

CASTELNUOVO, käs-těl-nwô-vō, Enrico, Italian novelist: b. Florence 1839. His stories have attained great popularity; among them 'Prof. Romualdo' (1878); Two Conventions) (1885); Reminiscences and Fancies' (1886). He is one of the acknowledged Italian masters of the "novel of the inner life" (romano intimo).

CASTELVECCHIO, Riccardo, re-car'dō käs-těl-věk ́ē-ō. See PULLE, GIULIO, COUNT.

CASTER-KELLNER ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. See ELECTROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES.

CASTI, käs'tè, Giambattista, Italian poet: b. Montefiascone 1721; d. Paris, 7 Feb. 1803. He studied at Montefiascone, became professor there, was appointed a canon and made a journey to France. Receiving an invitation from the Prince of Rosenberg, who became acquainted with him in Florence, he went to Vienna and was presented to Joseph II, who knew how to appreciate the genius of the poet, and delighted in his conversation. Casti took advantage of every opportunity of visiting other courts and joined several embassies without office or title. Catherine II received him in the most flattering manner. He visited also the court of Berlin and several other German courts. After his return to Vienna, Prince Rosenberg, the director of the Imperial Theatre, caused him to be appointed poeta Cesareo on the death of Metastasio. After the death of Joseph II Casti requested his dismission and retired to Florence, where he wrote many of his works. In 1783 he went to Paris. His 'Novelle galanti' were republished at Paris (1804), under the title Novelle di Giamb, Casti in three volumes. They are 48 in number. Almost all are of a licentious character, but written in a lively, original and graceful style. The same may be said of his didacticsatirical poem, 'Gli animali parlanti, poema epico di Giamb. Casti' (Milan 1802, 5 vols.). There are translations of it in French, German and English. Casti's 'Rime anacreontiche' are pleasing, and his comic operas, La grotta di Trofonio' and 'Il re Teodoro in Venezia,' etc., are full of wit and originality. His letters have been published in Miscellanea di storia italiana' (Vol. XII, Turin 1883). Consult Tommaseo, N., 'Dizionario d'Estelica' (Vol. II, p. 75, Milan 1860); Foscolo, 'Opere (Vol. IV, Florence 1850-62).

CASTIGLIONE, käs-tel-yō'nā, Baldassare, Italian writer: b. Casatico, in the territory of Mantua, 1478; d. 8 Feb. 1529. He studied at Milan, and entered into the services of the Duke Ludovico Sforza, and afterward of the Duke of Urbino, of whose elegant and splendid court he soon became an ornament. By him he was sent as an envoy to Henry VII of England, and afterward in the same capacity to Louis XII, at Milan. In 1513 Castiglione appeared as ambassador at the court of Leo X, where he became intimate with the most distinguished literati and artists. In 1521 he obtained for the new Duke of Urbino, Federigo, the command of the Papal troops, and in 1524 was employed by Pope Clement VII to conduct his negotiations with Charles V. When Rome was plundered by the Constable of Bourbon in 1527 he was accused of negligence and his health was undermined by chagrin. He refused to accept the rich bishopric of Avila, which was offered to him by the Emperor, until the Pope should be reconciled with Charles. Among his works, the 'Libro del Cortegiano' is the most celebrated. It teaches the art of succeeding at court. The best edition is by Cian (Florence 1894). His few Italian and Latin poems are elegant. His letters are valuable contributions to political and literary history. (See IL CORTEGIANO). Consult Cartwright, Julia, 'Baldas