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commander-in-chief of the state militia; appoints and commissions various officers, and has a general superintendence of public affairs.

In most of the states the Governor is elected for a single year. In some instances, he is elected for a longer time, as in New York, North Carolina, Georgia, and some others, for two years; Pennsylvania, Virginia, Indiana, for three years; Delaware, Louisiana, Arkansas, for four years. None are elected for a longer term than the last period. In some states the Governor is elected by the legislature, but in most instances by the people.

In all cases the legislature consists of two branches, a House of Representatives and a Senate. No bill can become a law unless sanctioned by both houses. The Governor has also a veto in most cases.

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The legislatures of the several states usually meet once a year. In some cases, however, their sessions are held but once in two years. qualifications required for members of the legislature, are various. In a majority of states, citizenship, possession of a certain amount of real estate, and being over twenty-five years of age, are requisites.

The Judiciary of the several states consists of a superior court, and several inferior courts, arranged somewhat after the model of the United States' courts. The judges are generally appointed by the legislature, in some instances annually, in others for a term of years, and in others during good behavior.

All the states are divided into counties. In each county there is a court-house where courts are held, and where various records are kept. Each

court has a clerk to record its proceedings, and a sheriff or other officer to execute its precepts. There are also county and state prisons for the confinement of those who are under arrest, or who are convicted of crimes and misdemeanors.

CHAPTER LXV..

Punishments.

IN barbarous ages, especially in despotic coun tries, the punishments for offences against the state have always been numerous and cruel. Torture and death have been inflicted in thousands of cases, not only for such high offences as treason, robbery and murder, but for more trivial misdemeanors, and even for holding particular religious opinions, and those which are now regarded as right by a large part of the Christian world.

Even in England, where the criminal code has been softened with the progress of civilization, down to a recent period the laws made about two hundred offences capital crimes; that is, punishable with death. A change has very lately taken place, and the number of capital offences now known to the English law, are only thirteen, among which are the following:

Treason; murder; attempt to murder, by administering poison; attempt to murder, by stabbing; piracy, attended by an attempt to murder; robbery, with an attempt to murder; burglary, (that is, breaking into a house between nine o'clock at night and six o'clock in the morning,)

with an attempt to murder; arson, that is, setting fire to a dwelling-house with any person therein; exhibiting any false light, with an intent to bring a vessel into danger; and every accessary before the fact, to any one of the above offences.

Most of these offences have been punished with death in this country; but there has been and still is a growing aversion to capital punishment. The belief extensively prevails, that a mild code is more effectual in checking crime, than a sanguinary one; and under the influence of these views, only a few of the more atrocious crimes are now punished, in this country, with death.

Imprisonment, with confinement to hard labor, and in some instances solitary confinement, are now the chief inflictions of the law for crimes against the public. Piracy, cognisable by the United States' courts, and murder by the state courts, are universally punished with death.

Imprisonment for debt, a common practice in most other countries, is nearly abolished in the states. If a person has no property, and will take oath to that effect, he can obtain his release from imprisonment for debt. This is a great mitigation of former laws; for once a creditor could keep his debtor in prison as long as he pleased, even if he had not a farthing of property. The law gave the creditor entire power over the body of the debtor, and this is still the fact in some European countries.

CHAPTER LXVI.

Qualifications of Voters.

THE chief distinction between our political system and the systems of other countries, is in the freedom of our elections. In England, France, Spain and some other countries, the right of suffrage, the elective franchise, or in other words, the privilege of voting for public officers, exists, but it is enjoyed only by a few persons, and those having considerable property. In this country the invaluable right of suffrage is much more extended. In most of the states, every citizen who has resided in a place for a few months, and paid a tax, is entitled to vote there in the elections for all public officers.

In the earlier periods of our state governments, the right of suffrage was not enjoyed except by persons holding landed estate: this right has been gradually extended, so as to be nearly universal, in almost all the states.

In Rhode Island, as the original colonial charter, granted in 1663, is in force, and forms the basis of the government to the present day, the ancient qualifications of voters are still required, among which is the holding of real estate to the value of one hundred and thirty-four dollars. This restraint upon the elective franchise, or right of voting, has been a just cause of complaint, among a part of the citizens of Rhode Island, for many years; and as their wishes have been steadily resisted, the feeling of resentment broke out into open insurrection in 1842.

An informal convention had been called the year previous, which formed a constitution: this being submitted to the people, was said to be accepted by a majority. Under this, an election was held; a governor by the name of Dorr was elected, with a senate and representatives. Dorr resorted to arms to establish this government, but was driven out of the state by the regular government.

It is to be hoped that the portion of the people of Rhode Island opposed to the extension of suffrage, called the charter party, and who have prevented the formation of a liberal constitution, will see the policy and justice of adopting a written constitution, as liberal, in respect to suffrage and other matters, as the constitutions of the adjacent states of Massachusetts and Connecticut.

There is no one point upon which the American people are more justly jealous than upon this of suffrage. They not only claim that it shall be extensively enjoyed, but they insist upon voting by ballot. This is done by putting a piece of paper, with the name of the person voted for, into a box, called the ballot-box. This is done so that no one need see or know who a person votes for. advantage of this mode of voting, is that every man may vote independently; that even the poor and dependent may vote as they like, without being overawed by the rich, or those who have some power over them.

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It will be perceived that in political affairs, women and children do not vote. It may be asked, what right has society to exclude these persons from so dear a privilege as that of the elective franchise? The answer is, that the good of society, and the good of those thus restrained, is best

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