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the existence of one God-as distinguished from the creed of many gods, which prevailed at that time in all other nations-with the doctrine that the people were responsible to him for every action. In order to inculcate these principles and eradicate all the idolatrous notions which the Hebrews had imbibed in Egypt, Moses instituted a great variety of rites and ceremonies, all calculated to produce these effects, and, at the same time, to keep the descendants of Jacob as a distinct and peculiar people.

Such being his leading design, nothing could be better conceived than the means he adopted for his purpose. To superintend the religious rites and ceremonies, priests, being the descendants of Aaron, were appointed, and numerous assistants, called Levites, from Levi, their progenitor, were also appointed. These latter obeyed the priests in the services of the temple, and sang and played on instruments in the daily services. They also studied the law, and were the common judges, being however inferior to the priests, who were not only judges of religious questions, but of civil and criminal cases.

There is no part of government more important than that of the administration of justice, by which is meant the settlement of questions arising under the laws. Under the patriarchs, the judicial power was invested in the heads of tribes or families, who could banish, disinherit, or inflict sentence of death, according to their own will. In the time of Moses, a change was made in this respect; he was made supreme judge, and subsequently the priests had jurisdiction. There were also courts established, to which authority was

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given over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens. These courts were again changed at several subsequent periods.

Before the courts, a man could plead his own cause, though men of wisdom and influence seem to have appeared in behalf of those incapable of speaking for themselves. In criminal cases the person charged was exhorted first to tell the truth, and then the witnesses were put under oath. Witnesses were examined separately, but in presence of the accused. When a man was found guilty of a crime, he was immediately hurried away to execution.

Though the institutions of the Hebrews were essentially different from those which prevail in this more enlightened day, still it must be admitted that they were far more favorable to individual liberty than the institutions of other countries of that age, and more so indeed than those of the principal monarchies of Asia now existing. The administration of justice, in the time of David, among the Hebrews, was more consonant to human rights, than it is now in China, the most civilized country of Asia.

THE early history of China is involved in the mists of obscurity. The historians of the country claim an incredible antiquity, and pretend to tell us of dynasties that reigned over the nation for ages before the period assigned to the creation of the world.

It is now, and has been for ages, the policy of the government to exclude strangers from the country, so that little is known of it. The steps by which the government has arrived at its present state cannot be traced, and we can therefore do little more than give an outline of it, as it now exists. It has probably undergone little alteration for centuries.

The government of China is professedly patriarchal; the emperor having the title of holy son

of heaven, sole guardian of the earth, great father of his people. But it is patriarchal on the largest scale of which there is any account, for his family consists of about 360 millions of members. Beside, the nature of the government is rather too severe for a parent to administer to his children.

The emperor is absolute in his authority, and such is the extent of his dominions that he is obliged to devote his whole time to business. Offerings are made to his image and his throne; his person is worshipped, his subjects prostrating themselves before him. He never appears in public without two thousand lictors, bearing chains, axes, and other instruments indicative of eastern despotism.

There are two kinds of nobility; those who have titles and privileges by birth, and those who hold offices; these are called mandarins. In every province there is a mandarin, or magistrate, who is aided by a council. There are courts of justice in the different towns, but these are too often capricious and corrupt. In order to ascertain whether a witness tells the truth, his spittle is examined. If he "spits cotton," that is, if the mucus is frothy, it is esteemed a proof of agitation of mind incompatible with honesty, and he is discredited.

On the whole, the government of China is the best in Asia, but it is the most despotic in the world. All power being with the emperor, the people are not considered as having any political rights. The great instrument of government is punishment, and this is inflicted without mercy, and in a variety of barbarous modes. China may be regarded as one vast school-house, in which

the master has the birch continually in his hand. It has been humorously said that the emperor canes his ministers; the ministers cane the mandarins; and the mandarins cane the people; the men cane their wives; and the wives cane their children. The Chinese may therefore be considered a well-flogged nation.

The art of printing was known in China, even before its discovery in Europe, and now nearly all persons can read. The laws are published, and it is made the imperious duty of all magistrates thoroughly to understand them. The penal code, called "Ta Tsing Leu Lee," has been published in the English language.

From this code, which has been gradually forming under a succession of emperors for ages, it appears that the laws of China are a series of police regulations, many of them such as could not be established or enforced either in Europe or this country.

The punishments inflicted by this code, are chiefly whipping with a bamboo cane; wearing around the body a heavy frame of wood called the cangue, and which is a moving pillory; banishment, imprisonment, strangulation, and decapitation. The following extracts from this code, will give some idea of it :

"Rebellion is an attempt to violate the divine order of things on earth: for as the fruits of the earth are produced in regular succession, under the influence of the presiding spirit, so is their distribution among the people regulated by the sovereign, who is the sacred successor to the seat of his ancestors; resisting and conspiring against him is, therefore, an unspeakable outrage, and a disturb ance of the peace of the universe.