In

to Normandy, he opened a school at Avranches (1039), which became a centre of elegant Latinity. 1042, acting on a devout inspiration, he suddenly joined the small abbey of Bec, was soon elected prior, and opened a school which quickly surpassed that of Avranches. He soon found a wider field for his ambition as the counsellor of Duke William. William sent him on a mission to Rome, where he gained distinction by his defence of the doctrine of the Real Presence against the attacks of Berengarius of Tours. In 1066 (the year of the Conquest) William made him abbot of his new monastery of St. Stephen at Caen, and in 1070 he became Archbishop of Canterbury in place of the deposed Saxon prelate Stigand. His reform of the AngloSaxon Church and his severity to its clergy concern us here less than his invitation to learned foreigners, whereby he founded a new school of science and literature in England. His great work was a treatise against Berengarius (written in 1079 or 1080); he also wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, and letters. Many of Lanfranc's works are now lost. ST. ANSELM (1033-1109) was also an Italian, a native of Aosta in Piedmont. His eagerness for learning led him to Bec, where he succeeded Lanfranc as prior and afterwards (1078) became abbot in place of Herluin. Most of his works were composed at Bec, where he gained the highest reputation for piety and taught diligently. On his second visit to England (1092-93) the voice of the bishops and barons forced William Rufus to appoint him to the see of Canterbury in succession to Lanfranc, who had been dead nearly four years. Anselm's troubles in the primacy belong to history rather than to literature; but amidst them all he continued to write and teach. It is unnecessary to enumerate his many works, which are less important than his influence on the learning of the age. They consist of theological and dialectical treatises -the most celebrated of which is the Cur Deus homo? a book on the Incarnation of our Lord-homilies,

There are many distinguished prelates whose fame is little, if at all, inferior to the fame of these-for example, the illustrious Grosseteste, whom we have already mentioned. Among writers of more general literature, the most interesting is JOHN OF SALISBURY, Bishop of Chartres (d. 1182), who studied for many years at Paris and in the famous Cathedral School of Chartres, and wrote very excellent Latin prose. His chief treatises were the Metalogicus, which is full of valuable detail as to medieval education, and the De Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum. He also wrote Latin verse. His friend PETER OF BLOIS, Archdeacon of Bath (d. after 1198), wrote letters which throw much light on the characters and manners of his time; he was also the author of many other interesting works, and of a poem on Richard's misfortunes in Palestine. The English Schoolmen were for the most part of the AngloSaxon race, and lived chiefly abroad. ALEXANDER OF HALES, the "Irrefragable Doctor," was a native of Gloucestershire and a member of the Franciscan Order. He was the first of the great Franciscan teachers who, side by side with the Dominicans, built up the great fabric of Catholic theology He also was the master of ST. BONAVENTURA, the "Seraphic Doctor," the greatest of medieval mystics. He lived and taught abroad, and died in Paris, 1245. The theology of Alexander of Hales found a more permanent form in the great theological treatise of the Dominican ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, the "Angelic Doctor." At Oxford. however, what was known as the Thomist system of theology was not regarded with favour; and the revolt was headed by JOHANNES DUNS SCOTUS (c. 1265-c. 1308), the "Subtle Doctor," who taught at Oxford and Paris and died at Bologna. Both Aquinas and Duns Scotus were, as the phrase of the day went, Realists

that is, they believed that each of

our abstract ideas has some real foundation in fact; but, while the followers of Aquinas took the more material view of the mysteries of the faith, the Scotists differed from them in their love of mystical interpretation. The great historical point in Scotus' system is that he and his followers were Franciscans, while the Thomists were Dominicans: his teaching marks the great split between the two chief preaching orders. Both Thomists and Scotists were in their turn combated by another Franciscan, WILLIAM OF OCKHAM (1300-1349), the "Invincible Doctor," who almost certainly studied at Oxford, took his doctor's degree at Paris, and spent most of his life in maintaining the cause of the Emperor Lewis IV against the Pope. He was the head of the school of Nominalists, who held that our abstract ideas are merely general expressions of thought not necessarily corresponding to real existences. Ockham died at Munich. Another remarkable Schoolman was THOMAS BRADWARDINE (circ. 1290-1349), the "Profound Doctor," who was philosophically a Realist, but held theological views somewhat novel for his time. He was for the last month of his life Archbishop of Canterbury. At Oxford, too, the Franciscan ROGER BACON (circ, 1214–1294), by his devotion to physical science, gained the reputation of a sorcerer. His experiments dimly anticipated some of the great inventions of later times; among them is thought to have been the discovery of gunpowder. His Opus Majus is an enquiry into "the roots of wisdom," namely, language, mathematics, optics, and experimental science. That he had begun to cast off the scholastic trammels, and already to question nature in the spirit of his great namesake, is shown by his saying, of a disputed fact in physics, "I have tried it, and it is not the fact, but the very reverse."

2. Latin chronicles of past and contemporary history had already been begun before the Conquest. Their writers were Churchmen, and, for the most part, of the Saxon race with a few exceptions they

confined themselves to the history of England. Passing over the very doubtful work ascribed to INGULPHUS, Abbot of Crowland from 1086 to 1109, and its continuation, which goes down to the year 1118, we have a history of the Norman Conquest by WILLIAM OF POITIERS, a follower of the Conqueror. This extends from 1035 to 1067, but the beginning and end are lost; we know that it came down to 1070. FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118)

not a lady, as his name might imply at first sight, but a monkcompiled a Chronicon ex Chronicis from the Creation to the year of his death, working upon the material contained in the Saxon Chronicle and the Chronology of Marianus Scotus, an Irish monk. EADMER (d. circ. 1124) was a monk of Canterbury: his Historia Novorum is chiefly a monument to the fame of St. Anselm. ORDERICUS VITALIS, (1075-after 1143), a native of Shropshire, wrote an ecclesiastical history in thirteen books, from the beginning of the Christian era to 1141. The best of all these chroniclers is WILLIAM of MalmeSBURY (d. circ. 1143), who dedicated his history to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, natural son of Henry I. It is in two parts; the Gesta Regum Anglorum, in five books, from the landing of Hengist and Horsa to 1120, and the Historia Novella, in three books, continued to 1142. The work is written in the spirit and manner of Bede. William also wrote a Life of Wulfstan, a history of the English Bishops, and other works. His contemporary, HENRY OF HUNTINGDON (d. after 1154), also a worthy follower of Bede, although inferior to William, wrote a history of England from the landing of Julius Cæsar to the accession of Henry II. To the eight books of this history he added two additional treatises and three epistles. GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH (d. 1154) also inscribed to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, his Historia Britonum, which professes to be a translation of an old chronicle brought over from Brittany by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford. Its nine books relate the legendary story

of the British kings, from Brutus, the great-grandson of Enéas, to the death of Cadwallader, son of Cadwallo, in 688. The lively Welshman kept his country's traditions free from those rationalising elements which 'spoil a good poem, without making a good history," and provided for the romance writers some of their best stories, chief among them that of Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Geoffrey became Bishop of St. Asaph in 1152. His work was extensively used by ALFRED OF BEVERLEY, and continued by CARADOC OF LLANCARVAN. Caradoc's work is known only in spurious Welsh versions: Powel's Historia Cambria (1584) professes to be founded on it. Another learned Welshman, GERALD DE BARRI, Archdeacon of St. Davids, better known as GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (circ. 1146-1220), wrote topographical works on Wales and Ireland, two or three autobiographic pamphlets, and many other treatises, including several Latin poems. He was about the most vigorous and versatile author of his time.

ST. AILRED, Abbot of Rievaulx, (c. 1109-1166), has left an admirable account of the Battle of the Standard (1138) and several theological works. ROGER OF HOVEDEN (i.e. Howden, near Hull) continued Bede's History from 732 to 1201, transcribing from a continuator of Bede and other authorities. GEOFFREY DE VINSAUF has been credited with an Itinerary of the Crusade, in which he followed Richard Coeur de Lion. Perhaps the most celebrated of the chronicles is the Chronica Majora of MATTHEW PARIS, a monk of St. Albans, which extends from the Norman Conquest to the year of his death, 1259. Much of it is a revision of the work of previous St. Aibans chroniclers, and chiefly of the Flores Historiarum of ROGER OF WENDOVER, who was a monk of St. Albans, and for a short time was Prior of Belvoir. He died on May 6, 1237. Roger's work extends from the Creation to the nineteenth year of Henry III, and the latter part (1189-1235) is very valuable. It was published in five

volumes for the English Historical Society by the Rev. H. O. Coxe (1841-44). Another monk of St. Albans, WILLIAM RISHANGER, probably continued the work of Matthew Paris to 1306, and wrote the history of the Barons' Wars. The Chronicle of St. Albans, continued from Rishanger by JOHN OF TROKELOWE and others, was revised, as Roger of Wendover's book had been edited by Matthew Paris, by THOMAS WALSINGHAM in his Historia Anglicana (edited by H. T. Riley, 1843). NICHOLAS TRIVET wrote an excellent history, from Stephen to Edward I (1136-1307), which was edited by Mr. T. Hog (1845). Another fourteenth-century chronicler is RANULF HIGDEN, a Benedictine monk of St. Werburgh's, in Chester, where he died at a great age in 1364. His Polychronicon was a universal history in seven books. Only the part preceding the Norman Conquest was printed in Gale's Scrip tores XV (published at Oxford, 1691); but John de Trevisa's English translation of the whole work was printed by Caxton, who added an epitome in 1482. Some authorities ascribe to Higden the Chester Mysteries, performed in 1328. The Chronicle of the Abbey of Bury St. Edmunds (1173-1202), by JOCELYN DE BRAKELOND, was edited for the first time in 1840, and furnished Carlyle with materials for the vivid picture of the old abbot and his age in Past and Present.

Besides the writings of these chroniclers (and several almost as important might be named), we have a mass of public rolls and registers, beginning with Domesday Book; but these official documents hardly belong to literature. The more important chronicles and the work of men like Giraldus Cambrensis have appeared in the invaluable Rolls Series, and translations of some of them are to be found in the volumes of Bohn's Historical Series, published by Mr. G. Bell.

3. The frequent resort of Englishmen to the University of Bologna, where the foundations of the Civil Law had been laid by Irnerius, gave an impulse to the study in England.

This excited the emulation of the great masters of the Common Law and so produced, towards the end of the twelfth century, the first great treatise on the laws of Englandthe Tractatus de Legibus et Consuetudinibus Anglia, by the chief justiciary, RANULF DE GLANVILLE (d. 1190).

4. The Letters of the leading Churchmen of the age, beside the value of their matter, afford many good specimens of Latin composition. Beginning with Lanfranc and St. Anselm, the series comes down to THOMAS BECKET and STEPHEN LANGTON; but by far the most valuable for their matter and the

most interesting for their literary excellence are those of John of Salisbury and Peter of Blois, which reveal to us much both of the political and the scholastic history of the latter half of the twelfth century. The letters of Robert Grosseteste have been edited by Dr. Luard (1861), and the works of John of Salisbury are thoroughly analysed in the monograph of Dr. Schaarschmidt (Leipsic, 1862).

5. Latin poetry was cultivated as an elegant accomplishment by the men of learning, Lawrence of Durham, Henry of Huntingdon, John of Salisbury, John de Hauteville, and others. But a more natural though irregular school was formed under the influence of the minstrels, whose accentual system of verse, applied to Latin in defiance of quantity, gave rise to the "Leonine" verse, the metre of epigram, satire, and, to a certain extent, of the hymns of the Church. The term "Leonine" describes specifically verses rhymed as well as accentual, but both forms Leonine verse was naturalised in Europe by the end of the eleventh century, and was applied to hymnology by St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, and, traditionally, Pope Innocent III. Great

are common.

hymn-writers, like Adam of St. Victor, flourished in the following centuries; everyone is familiar with hymns like the Stabat Mater or Thomas of Celano's Dies Ira. A curious instance of the use of Leonine verse in England is furnished

"

A further stage of licence is seen in the frivolous Macaronic Poetry," which abounds not only in Latin words of the strangest formation, but in mixtures of different languages. The following example, in Latin, French, and English, belongs to the early part of Edward II's reign:

"Quant homme deit parleir, videat quae verba loquatur,

Sen covent aver, ne stultior inveniatur, Quando quis loquitur, bote resoun reste therynne,

Derisum patitur, ant lutel so shall he wynne."

"This confusion of tongues led very all, and consequently none of them naturally to the corruption of them were written or spoken as correctly as at the period when they were kept distinct.

But the Leonine, as indeed also for satire directed against the vices the regular verse, was chiefly used of the age and especially by the secular clergy and laymen. Here is one example:

"Mille annis jam peractis.
Nulla fides est in pactis:
Mel in ore, verba lactis,

Fel in corde, fraus in factis."

It was employed also for all manner of light and satiric pieces. The earliest known writer in this style was HILARIUS, a disciple of Abelard, and probably an Englishman, who flourished about 1125. A mass of such poetry, probably by various writers, is ascribed to WALTER MAP or MAPES, a writer of the time of Henry II, who was Archdeacon of Oxford, parson of Westbury-on-Trym in Gloucestershire, and Precentor and Chancellor of Lincoln. These poems bear the general title of Confessio Golia, their hero, Bishop Golias, being taken as the type of loose livers.