of the court in which the judgment was entered with provision for filing a transcript to create a lien in other countries of the same State in which the debtor owns real estate. A foreign judgment, in which are included the judgments of others of the United States, must be sued on and a judgment recovered upon it to make it effective in any of the States. In such suit no defense which could have been interposed in the original suit will be allowed to the judgment debtor.

JOHN DOUGLASS BROWN.

JUDIC, zhu'dik, Anna Damiens, French actress: b. Semur, 1850; d. 1911. In 1868, shortly after her graduation from the Conservatoire, she became very popular at the Eldorado Theatre. In 1871 she visited Belgium; and then returned to the Gaité and other Parisian theatres where her popularity increased by leaps and bounds. Among her notable creations were Niniche, Mimi, Lili and Mademoiselle Nitouche. She made a two years' tour (188586) of the principal cities of Europe and the United States. Retiring from the stage for some time, she returned to it in 1898.

JUDICA, joo'di-ką ("judge," or "give sentence"), the first word in the 43d Psalm, used as an introit in the Church of England (1549) for the 3d Sunday in Lent, and in the Roman Catholic Church for the 5th Sunday in Lent. Hence "Judica Sunday" as a term to designate those several days.

JUDICATURE ACTS, in English law, a number of statutes, dating from 1873, simplifying procedure and consolidating numerous courts into one Supreme Court of judicature. Demurrers were abolished, and important changes made in the rules as to the right of trial by jury. The acts in question are 36 and 37 Vict., c. 66, and 38 and 39 Vict., c. 77, with various amendments. A 12th amending act was passed in 1899. By the first of these acts the Court of Queen's (or King's) Bench, the Court of Chancery, the Court of Exchequer, the Court of Common Pleas, the High Court of Admiralty, the Court of Probate and the Court of Divorce and Matrimony were consolidated into one Supreme Court of Judicature, consisting of a High Court of Justice and a Court of Appeal. By these acts laws and equity were administered by the same court, and equitable defenses allowed in legal actions. Another object of these acts was to simplify pleading and practice, and this was done by abolishing the old forms of action. The former arbitrary modes of pleading were supplanted by concise statements of claim or defense. The House of Lords under these acts remains the highest court of appeal. In case a point of law is raised by the pleadings, it is left for settlement until the trial or until after the issues of fact have been disposed of. It is claimed by some that the abolition of demurrers and settling questions of law after the beginning of the action has led to great laxity and inaccuracy in pleading. Upon notice without order, either party has a right to trial by jury in actions of false imprisonment, malicious prosecution, slander, libel, seduction or breach of promise of marriage. By the act of 40 and 41 Vict., c. 57, a Supreme Court of Judicature was established in Ireland in 1878, and by this act and later

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ones, a substantially similar system to that of England is now in effect.

JUDICIAL DECISIONS, Recall of. See

RECALL.

JUDICIAL DISTRICT. See DISTRICT. JUDICIAL NOTICE, recognition by a court of some certain feature involved in an action as being self-evident and, therefore, in no necessity of proof. It is a very old doctrine in English and American law. The determining of what facts come under the term judicial notice is almost altogether in the hands of the court which is generally supposed to take judicial notice of the common and the public statute law, the public offices and officers, rules of courts, matters of public record in its own State, the State and the United States political constitutions; and, in addition, all other factors or claims which might, in reason, affect any decision to be made, such as the existence and title of foreign state and sovereign recognized by the United States and public proclamations of the national or State chief executive. In short, the court, in making its decision in case of judicial notice, is supposed to be fully and truly possessed of all the facts, conditions and bearings of the question at issue. The judge must at some time either previous to the trial or during it become convinced that the fact in question is self-evident and that it therefore does not admit of dispute nor require proof. This condition also applies to courts and juries, but the jury cannot take cognizance of a law without instruction from the court, since such is not the function of a jury. An appeal may be made to the appellate court against the decision of the court, and it may, if it finds reason therefor, reverse the judgment and order a new trial. See EVIDENCE,

JUDICIAL SEPARATION, the termination by process of law of the conjugal rights and obligations of husband and wife. In many countries where divorce is either not recognized at all or is very difficult to obtain, judicial separation affords a legal relief against, if not a remedy for, intolerable marriage conditions. It is therefore frequently resorted to in countries that are strongly Roman Catholic, owing to the stand taken by that Church against the dissolution of the marriage contract, which is considered in the light of a sacrament of religion. In most of the countries of Europe, where old customs, laws and traditions change slowly, the securing of a divorce is a very difficult matter, even where the provisions of the law make it possible; and here judicial separation is resorted to as affording quicker and easier relief and less public notice. This condition obtains in England and her colonies. In the United States, however, where many attempts have been made by the various States of the Union to regulate the question of the legal separation of man and wife, more or less liberal divorce laws have been placed upon the statute books of most of the States. In the legal sense of the term judicial separation is not a divorce since it does not dissolve the marriage bonds, but simply requires the contracting parties to live apart as though they were not husband and wife. Divorce, on the other hand, is the dissolution of the marriage ties. The parties to the divorce are generally

permitted to marry again, though the divorce decree sometimes prohibits one or both of them permanently, or for a certain specified time. In effect the judicial separation is, in many respects, similar to that of the decree of divorce. It destroys the right of husband and wife to cohabit (consortium) or to enjoy one another's society as married parties. As it has the result of making the parties to the judicial separation, in a legal sense, individuals, it relieves the husband of the support of his wife or of the payment of all debts and obligations contracted by her. But as the parties to the decree of judicial separation are still husband and wife, in the eyes of the law, neither, under the terms and intent of the decree, can marry again. Any such attempt would be legal bigamy and adultery. Nor does legal separation generally interfere with the property relationship of husband and wife or any business contracts, obligations or relationships they may have entered into previous to the decree of judicial separation. The husband, as the head of the family, is still the legal guardian of his children unless expressly deprived of this, or having voluntarily resigned it in the legal process of the securing of the decree. Although legally separated, the wife, on the death of her husband, has the same relation to him and his estate and other possessions as though no separation had taken place. The husband, in the same manner, in the case of the death of his wife, has all the rights given by the marriage contract. See DIVORCE.

JUDICIARY, the body of judges or magistrates who exercise their authority either singly or as tribunals, interpreting the laws which the legislatures make and the executives execute. The highest courts in all countries, and those mostly of an intermediate character, are held by a bench of judges, rather than by a single magistrate. Dominating all is usually a supreme court which determines all legal controversies of national concern. In nations under a federal system of government, the judicial power is usually divided between two separate and distinct classes of courts: federal courts exercising judicial power in respect to questions of national concern and state courts established for the determination of legal controversies of a local character.

The Judiciary Act of the United States Congress, 24 Sept. 1789 (1 Stat. 73), is nonembodied with the amendments in the provisions of the United States. The act established the Federal courts of the United States, defined their jurisdiction and powers and regulated procedure. The basis of the whole legal system of the country is the common law (q.v.), without which there would be an extraordinary variety of judicial organization and procedure throughout the nation, each State having its own separate and distinct judicial system and procedure; framed according to its own notions of its local needs and conditions. Above all other governmental departments the Federal judiciary especially, and the judiciary in general, command popular confidence and respect. The importance and political influence the judiciary possesses have been largely increased from the power which the American courts have attained in declaring statutes null and void when they are found to conflict with the Constitution.

From the beginning this power has been recognized almost without dispute. While State judges are for the most part elected by the people, all Federal judges are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. In regard to terms of judicial tenure, there is a great variety of opinion and practice throughout the United States. See COURT; JUDGE; SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. JUDICIARY AND EXECUTIVE. See EXECUTIVE.

JUDITH, Jewish heroine. She was the widow of Manasses, a citizen of Bethulia. When Holofernes, general of King Nebuchadnezzar, according to the book of Judith, besieged Bethulia, a city of unknown geographical position, she went armed with faith in Jehovah to the tent of the invader and was admitted because of her stately beauty. While he slept she cut off his head with his own sword and thus delivered Israel. This incident has been a favorite subject with artists, for in the first place the book of Judith is written with abundant literary point and skill and is naturally suggestive to the sculptor or painter. It is the subject of Donatello's bronze group in the Lanzi palace at Florence, and of many pictures, notably that of Cranach in the Dresden Gallery, and those of Horace Vernet, Judith on Her Way to Holofernes' and Judith in the Tent of Holofernes.'

JUDITH, zhŭ'dēt', Julie Bernat, French actress b. Paris, 1827; d. 1912. She was a relative of Rachel (q.v.). She played in the principal theatres of Paris, making her début at Les Folies in 1845. Among her many successful rôles were Pénélope, Alcemène, Rosine, Charlotte Corday and Mademoiselle Aïsé. She was married to Bernard Derosne and with him made translations from English into French. Under the pen name Judith Barnard she wrote 'Le Chateau du Tremble' (1872).

JUDSON, Adoniram, American missionary: b. Malden, Mass., 9 Aug. 1788; d. at sea, 12 Aug. 1850. He was a member of the first American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions, consisting of five members. Sent to London to confer with the London Missionary Society, he was captured, on the way, by a French privateer and imprisoned at Bayonne. Released, later on, he proceeded to London and accomplished his mission. Returning to America, he and four other missionaries, Hall, Newell, Nott and Rice, were sent to India (or Burma) by the American Board of Foreign Missions (February 1812). In Calcutta Judson and his wife joined the Baptists, and their activities resulted in the formation of the American Baptist Missionary Union (1814). After considerable wandering, Mr. and Mrs. Judson settled in Rangoon (1813). Although they do not seem to have had very great success in gaining converts among the natives, the government, nevertheless, did not show itself at all friendly toward their efforts, which had netted them a score or more of converts in 11 years. On the breaking out of war between Burma and the East India Company, Judson was imprisoned for a year and seven months, and even then was released only on a peremptory demand on the part of Gen. Sir Archibald Campbell. After a year at Amherst in Lower Burma, he went

to Maulmain, where he was successful in founding a church. Returning to America in 1845 on account of his own ill health and that of his family, he went back to Rangoon in 1847, where he occupied a goodly part of his time in the preparation of a dictionary. Forced by returned ill health to leave the country, he was carried on board ship at Maulmain and died on the voyage four days later. His body was buried at sea. Judson was an indefatigable and tireless worker, and his work must be judged from two points of view, the aims actually açcomplished and the general results of his labor upon conditions not only in the country in which he labored but upon all of India and Further India. In his 37 years of missionary labor he succeeded in gradually working up a sentiment in the East in favor of religious toleration which is to-day bearing fruit in many quarters. One of his most successful efforts was the organization of an extensive, trained body of native assistants to aid him in the translation of the Bible and other works into Burmese, and in the compilation of his Burmese-English and EnglishBurmese dictionary, Burmese grammar and Pali dictionary. These works, though intended primarily as aids for missionaries in Burma and the India countries generally, have been great aids to the study, by students and scholars of the languages of the East, in which Judson's missionary efforts and the publicity they had received had helped to increase the growing interest. Consult lives of Judson by his son, Edward Judson (New York 1883 and 1898); and by Wayland. See JUDSON, ANN HASSELTINE; JUDSON, SARAH HALL; JUDSON, EMILY CHUBBOCK.

JUDSON, Adoniram Brown, American surgeon: b. Maulmain, Burma, 7 April 1837; d. New York, 21 Sept. 1916. He was a son of the missionary Adoniram Judson. His mother was Sarah Hall Boardman Judson. He was graduated from Brown University in 1859, Harvard Medical School in 1860, Jefferson Medical College in 1865 and College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1868. He became assistant surgeon in the United States navy in 1861; surgeon in 1866 and resigned in 1868. Since then he had engaged in the practice of medicine in New York city. He was a specialist in orthopedic surgery, inspector of the New York board of health from 1869 to 1877; pension examining surgeon from 1877 to 1884 and from 1901 to 1914; mediical examiner of the New York State Civil Service Commission from 1901 to 1909; orthopedic surgeon to the out-patient department_of New York Hospital from 1878 to 1908. Dr. Judson was president of the American Orthopedic Association in 1891, member of the American Medical Association, Fellow of the American College of Surgeons, American Academy of Medicine and the Academy of Medicine and was a member of Lafayette Post, G. A. R. He wrote on medical and surgical subjects.

JUDSON, Ann Hasseltine, American missionary to India: b. Bradford, Mass., 22 Dec. 1789; d. Amherst, Lower Burma, 24 Oct. 1826. She was the wife of Adoniram Judson (q.v.), whom she accompanied on his first visit to India (1812) and with whom she labored as a missionary. She published a History of the Burma Mission. Consult Knowles, 'Life of Ann Hasseltine Judson.)

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JUDSON, Edward, American Baptist clergyman: b. Maulmain, Burma, 27 Dec. 1844; d. New York, 23 Oct. 1914. He was the son of Adoniram Judson (q.v.) and came to the United States in 1850 after the death of his father. He studied at Madison (now Colgate) University and was graduated from Brown in 1865. He was principal of the academy at Townsend, Vt. (1865-67) and subsequently professor of Latin at Madison (now Colgate) University. In 1875 he accepted the pastorate of the Baptist Church at Orange, N. J., then became pastor of the Berean Baptist Church, New York city, and later secured a site on Washington square, New York, and erected the Judson Memorial Church (in memory of his father), of which he was pastor. Here he built up an institutional church, with many different lines of work, including gymnasium classes, a dispensary and a children's fresh air fund. He lectured on theology at the University of Chicago, 1904-06, and on Baptist principles and polity at Union Theological Seminary, 1906-08, and was made professor of pastoral polity at Colgate in the latter year. In 1899 he published a 'Life' of his father, and he wrote also 'The Institutional Church.'

JUDSON, Emily Chubbock, American writer and missionary: b. Eaton, N. Y., 22 Aug. 1817; d. Hamilton, N. Y., 1 June 1854. She was the third wife of Adoniram Judson (q.v.) whom she married in 1846, and at once accompanied to India. Even at this time she had attained a reputation as a writer under the pen name of Fanny Forester. She wrote the life of Sarah Hall (Boardman) Judson, second wife of Adoniram Judson. On the death of her husband she returned to America in 1850. Ill-health prevented her continuing her literary labor. She, however, assisted Dr. Wayland in writing the biography of Judson. Consult Kendrick, A. C., who has written her biography.

JUDSON, Frederick Newton, American author, lawyer and educator: b. Saint Mary's, Ga., 1845. Graduating from Yale University and the Saint Louis Law School (1871) he became private secretary for Gov. Gratz Brown, when he entered upon the practice of law. He lectured at Washington University (1903), and was Storrs lecturer at Yale (1913). He has been counsel for the United States on several important occasions, and acquired a reputation as a corporation lawyer. Among his published works are 'Law Practice of Taxation in Missouri' (1900); The Taxing Power, State and Federal, in the United States' (1902); "The Law of Interstate Commerce) (1905); The Judiciary and the People' (1913).

JUDSON, Harry Pratt, American educator: b. Jamestown, N. Y., 20 Dec. 1849. He was graduated from Williams College in 1870, was professor of history in the University of Minnesota 1885-92, professor of international law and head of the department of political science since 1892 in, and president since 1906 of, the University of Chicago. He is a member of the General Education Board since 1906, and member of the Rockefeller Foundation since 1913. He was chairman of the China Medical Commission 1914, and is a member of the China Medical Board since 1914. His works include Cæsar's Army, a study of the military art of the Romans (1888); Europe

in the Nineteenth Century' (1894); The Growth of the American Nation' (1895); "The Higher Education as a Training for Business' (1896); The Government of Illinois' (1900),

etc.

JUDSON, Sarah Hall (BOARDMAN), American missionary to Burma: b. Alstead, 4 Nov. 1803; d. Saint Helena, 1 Sept. 1845, while on way home to United States. She married Rev. George Dana Boardman in 1825 and went with him to the Baptist missionary work in Burma. On the death of Boardman she was married to Dr. Adoniram Judson (q.v.) in 1834. She helped the latter in his religious and literary labors and acquired such a good knowledge of Burmese that she translated into it numerous tracts, Biblical selections and a part of the Pilgrim's Progress. She also made a hymnbook in Burmese and supervised the translation of the New Testament into Peguan. Consult her life by Emily C. Judson.

JUDY, the wife of Punch, in the puppet show, Punch and Judy. See PUNCH AND JUDY.

JUEL, Jens, jõōl, yĕns, Danish statesman: b. 15 July 1631; d. 1700. He joined the suite of Count Christian Rantzau, with whom he visited Vienna and Ratisbon in 1652. Five years later Juel was sent as minister to the Polish court. Here he was not successful in deterring King John from making a separate treaty with Sweden. On Juel's return to his native country he was made privy councillor. About this time the misunderstanding between his uncle, Hannibal Sehested and Frederick III was composed and Juel's prospects were enhanced thereby. As his uncle's representative he negotiated the Peace of Copenhagen with Charles X. From 1660 to 1668 Juel was Danish minister to Sweden. Griffenfeldt, the chancellor, was a great admirer of Juel and on two occasions (1672 and 1674) sent the latter on special missions to Sweden with the avowed object of cementing closer relations between Sweden and Denmark but really to form an alliance with the former, Juel admired his chancellor's policy, which aimed at the weakening of Sweden and so forming a just balance between her and Denmark. Juel desired by all means to avoid a war with Sweden, the latter state being far the superior of Denmark in military strength. Despite his endeavors the unfortunate Scanian war broke out in 1675 and lasted for four years. At its close Juel was one of the Danish representatives who signed the peace treaty at Lund. At that conference he still aimed at the formation of an alliance with Sweden and afterward followed out this policy even bringing about the marriage of Charles XI and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of King Christian V. In 1680 Juel's plans for an amicable understanding with Sweden were upset by the death of Gyllenstjerna, the Swedish statesman who shared his views. In 1697 Juel represented his country at the coronation of Charles XII at which time he concluded a new treaty with Sweden. Juel was the shrewdest diplomatist of his time, taking for his motto: "We should wish for what we can get." He was greatly worried over the state of his country which he regarded as placed at the mercy of the Great Powers, a mercy as tender then as now! He opposed the establishment of an elastic political system and did all in his power

to advance commerce and industry. The emancipation of the serfs Juel thought impracticable and about the only reforms he championed were a few petty changes in the agricultural system. He showed himself a faithful friend by remaining steadfast to Griffenfeldt in the latter's days of adversity. Consult article Juel in Bricka, Dansk biografisk lexikon (Copenhagen 1887 et seq.).

JUEL, jōōl, Niels, Danish admiral: b. Christiana, 1629; d. 1697. Going to Holland in 1650, he served under De Ruyter and Tromp in the war against England and the Barbary states. He also fought with allied Dutch fleets against Sweden in 1659, and also in the later war with the same country in 1676, when being himself in command at the battle of Jassmund, he defeated, and swept the enemy's fleet out of the sea with a very much smaller number of vessels. The following year, with 25 ships to the Swedish 36, he again obtained the victory at the battle of the Bay of Kjöge.

JUENGLING, yung'ling, Frederick, American wood engraver: b. 1846; d. 1889. He was one of the founders and the first secretary of the American Society of Wood Engravers (1881). In his art he was one of the most consistent advocates and practicers of the new American system of wood engraving which substituted short broken lines, dots and so forth for the regulation long lines and regular sweep of the graver. He was a bold and clever workman and met with very considerable success. Consult Weitenkampf, Frank, 'American Graphic Art (New York 1912).

JUG, a vessel of earth, glass or metal, used for holding liquids and characterized by having one handle and a lip for ease in pouring. The origin of the word is uncertain. In slang the term is employed to denote a prison, and there is not wanting evidence that in this latter sense it is an adaptation of the Latin jug-um, a yoke. In the United States the word pitcher has superseded jug to a great extent. The Metropolitan Museum, New York, and the British Museum, London, contain very fine examples of this kind of vessel, in the latter is a remarkable bronze jug found at Kumasi in 1896. It was made in England in the reign of Richard II, whose arms and badge it bears. It is furnished with a lid, handle and spout. The ewer is a jug with a broad lip and was formerly in general use at table for pouring water over the hands after meals, a practice very essential when we remember that table forks were still unknown. Much variety in form and design appears in the early specimens, some are balanced on three feet and some take the form of animals. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the production in England of pottery vessels known as "Toby Jugs," "Nelson Jugs," etc., usually in the form of a stout old man with a hat the corners of which form the spouts.

JUGGERNAUT, jug'èr-nât. See JAGAN

NATH.

JUGGLER (Old French, jangleur, Latin, joculator, joker, jester), a skilful and dexterous performer of feats of different kinds, including slight of hand (legerdemain). The juggler is or was to be found in all lands. He was a favorite with the Greeks and the Romans, and has been, for centuries, with the

Japanese and Chinese; and he has long been an institution in India, Further India, Persia and Tibet. The Aztecs and many other American native races had very skilful jugglers who seem to have been frequently connected with the religious or mythological beliefs of the peoples. Very skilful jugglers formed one of the most striking features of the elaborate court entertainments of Montezuma II, who was so fond of this sport that he had his own favorite private jugglers, some of whom were dwarfs and people otherwise deformed. LEGERDEMAIN; FAKIR; FIRE-EATERS; JONGLEUR.

See

JUGLANDACE, the walnut family, dicotyledonous plants, native of the north temperate zone. Most of the 40 or more species of this family consist of trees, all nut-bearing and producers of excellent wood for cabinet and other work. The most valuable in this respect is the black walnut. The best known and most extensive genera are the Juglans or walnuts, and the Hicoria or hickories. The family is distinguished by alternate compound leaves.

JUGOSLAVIA, or YUGOSLAVIA, a term signifying the Southern Slav State (jugo comes from jug or yug, meaning south). The word derives from the geographical situation of the country, and includes the three branches of a single people known under the names of Serbians, Croatians and Slovenians. The area of the new state is about 75,000 square miles (nearly as large as England and Scotland together, or about two-thirds of the size of Italy). Its boundaries are formed by the Adriatic Sea and Isonzo River on the west, and the Hungarian Republic on the north. On the east it is bounded by Rumania and Bulgaria, and on the south by Greece and Albania. The provinces included in Jugoslavia are Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, Carniola, Bachka, Banat and parts of Istria, southern Styria and southern Carinthia. The population within the border limits given above is estimated at 14,000,000 inhabitants, of whom 90 per cent are Slavs and 10 per cent belong to other nationalities, scattered on the borders: Rumanians, Albanians and Bulgarians.

The first attempt at Jugoslav unity, which the European War has consummated, dates from the 9th century. Ljudevit Posavski roused the Slavic people, fought the Franks and assembled under his authority the Croatians of Pannonia, the Slovenes and the Serbians of the Danube region (819-22.) During a very short time all the Jugoslav countries situated between the Sava and the Timok recognized a common sovereign. But this ephemeral realm was soon destroyed by the Frank and Byzantine powers. However, even discounting enemies from without, its existence would not have lasted long. Difficulty of relationship and communication in the Middle Ages prevented different parts of the same kingdom from becoming acquainted and known to each other. The least natural obstacle was an insurmountable barrier separating members of a single race.

It was thus that the Jugoslav provinces continued like fiefs hidden away in their geographical limits, ignorant of one another. Everything held them apart; the numerous rivers and mountains of the rough, hilly country; the

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ambition and independence of their grand feudal chiefs, for whom the natural isolation of their subjects was a necessity; rivalry between the two churches: the Catholicism of Rome and the Orthodoxy of Byzance, which split up and disputed over the Jugoslavs placed under their two-fold influence. But in spite of all these obstacles, a feeling for inter-communication was to be noted among the southern Slavs every time an idea of centralization agitated Europe. A Jugoslav prince arose who tried to realize the union of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Zvonimir, king of Croatia (1076-88), as also Dushan the Mighty (1331-55), emperor of Serbia, and Tvrtko (1351-91), king of Bosnia, who reunited for a little while the three crowns of Bosnia, Serbia and Croatia.

From the 16th to 18th century most Jugoslav provinces fell under the Turkish rule, and the only link which kept the southern Slavs together was their language and common literature, known under the name of the Ragusan literature. The feeling of national unity was reflected in the writings of Ivan Gundulić (1588-1638), George Križanić (1617-86), Jovan Raić (1726-1801), Urban Jarnik (1784-1844), Dositheus Obradović (1739-1811) and many others. Thanks to the efforts of all these writers and thinkers, the idea of southern Slav unity was already widely disseminated among the people. Religious intolerance had lost much of its force. Liberal and democratic ideas prevailed for the moment, and the principle of nationality was proclaimed. Not long afterward the introduction of railroads facilitated communication between the different provinces, heretofore divided by impassable mountains. From this time onward the idea of Jugoslav unity showed itself not only in the works and thoughts of individual men of letters but in the great achievements of militant nationalism as well. Serbia emancipated herself politically (1804) and with Montenegro became the centre toward which the eyes of all the southern Slavs involuntarily turned. Side by side with great political events arose an intellectual movement of equal importance and likewise tending strongly toward emancipation and national unity. The celebrated scholar, Vuk Karadžić (1787-1864), completely reformed the Serbian literary language by his introduction of the vernacular into literature as the only fit and worthy vehicle of the written thoughts of the nation. His reform found an echo in Croatia where Ljudevit Gaj (1809– 72) and his fellow-workers adopted the same tongue. Among the Slovene writers, Stranko Vraz (1810-51) and other contemporary authors endeavored to adopt the Serbo-Croat tongue as their literary language. Thus the three separate literatures, known before as the Serbian, the Croatian and the Slovenian, were unified and have since then formed one southern Slav literature. The mental and spiritual union between the different branches of the nation assumed a definite form and at the end of the 19th century attained its full development.

At the beginning of the 20th century the Jugoslav movement was more intensively felt throughout all the provinces. In Serbia the Austrophile parties with the dynasty of Obrenović were overturned in 1903. In Croatia the movement was marked by the fall of the reactionary Ban Khuen-Hedervary, who for 20