crease over 1900 of 91,930 acres sold, and the average price was 10 cents an acre greater. The total area of land acquired by the province was stated at 1,689,250 acres, and 291,897 acres had been sold.

Public Works.-Mr. Rogers reported on Jan. 30 to the effect that the Municipal Councils were rapidly learning the value of proper road work. Colonization roads had been built into several districts not supplied by railways. A road had been built for this purpose to Edrans, south of Arden. An outlet had been given the settlers in Gimli district, the Fairford road had been improved, a road was built near Whitemouth, and one was started that would run from Vassar to Pine River. The only bridges of importance completed during the year were at Portage la Prairie over the Assiniboine and at Rapid City over the Little Saskatchewan. Grants were made, to the amount of $10,000, to assist in building bridges in other parts of the province. A great deal of work had been done in constructing drains. The Government had not only given financial aid to municipalities for this purpose, but had placed the services of engineers at the disposal of authorities.

Education. The school population of Manitoba in 1901 was 63,881; the number of pupils registered was 51,888; the average attendance was 27,550; the number of teachers was 1,669, of whom 618 were men and 1,051 were women. According to the official report for the year ending Dec. 31, 1901, the total receipts were $1,310,805, against $1,229,878 in 1900, and including $113,451 from legislative grant and $653,359 from municipal taxes. The expenditures were $1,272,616, including $582,325 for teachers' salaries; $148,987 for buildings, furnishing, etc.; $35,415 for fuel; $50,634 for repairs, etc.; and $15,713 for salaries to officials. The assets were given as $2,440,804-taxes due and value of school properties. The liabilities, chiefly debentures, were $1,155,420. The organized school districts numbered 1,206, and 1,064 were in operation. In 283 schools religious exercises were used in closing, in 169 the Bible was used, in 879 temperance instruction was given, in 925 moral instruction was given, and in 254 the Ten Commandments were taught. During the legislative session two important measures were introduced and passed by the Government dealing with Galician education and the organization of the school districts.

Railways. Railway facilities in the province were considerably expanded in 1902. Early in 1901 negotiations were concluded between the Government, the Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway Company, and the Canadian Northern Railway Company for the control and operation, under secure conditions, of the system of the former company in Manitoba. The arrangement concluded was, shortly, the leasing by the Government of Manitoba for nine hundred and ninety-nine years of all the branch lines of rail way of the Northern Pacific and Manitoba in consideration of the payment of the following rentals, namely: For the first ten years, $210,000 a year; for the second ten years, $225,000 a year; for the third ten years, $275,000 a year; and for the rest of the term, $300,000; and, in turn, the assignment of the lease by the Government, upon regular terms and conditions, to the Canadian Northern Company. The actual mileage of railway acquired from the Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway was 354.65.

Contemporaneous with the acquisition of the lines of the Northern Pacific and Manitoba Railway Company in the province of Manitoba, the

Government, by agreement bearing date Feb 11, 1901, confirmed by act of the Legislature on March 20 of the same year, contracted to and with the Canadian Northern Railway Company, to aid that company by guaranteeing its bonds at the rate of $20,000 a mile for a line of railway, estimated at 290 miles, extending from Port Arthur to, and connecting with, the lines of the company already constructed and opened for through traffic between Port Arthur and Winnipeg, on or before Oct. 1, 1901, unless unforeseen difficulties should arise through inability to secure men and materials. At the request of the company, the time for completion of the works was extended to Dec. 31, 1901. The Premier was able to announce in January, 1902, that the company had practically completed their contract on the latter date, thereby giving to the people of the province of Manitoba, under most. favorable and advantageous terms and conditions, an independent line of railway to the head waters of Lake Superior."

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The mileage of the Canadian Northern Railway, in and outside the province, with respect to which a guarantee liability on the part of the province exists-when the whole system is completed-is 979 miles. The extent of the liability upon guaranteed debentures will be $11,195,280. The total amount of cash aid given by the province toward the construction of railways in Manitoba, at the close of 1901, was $971,557, covering 545 miles. This was exclusive of the $75,000 promised the Canadian Pacific Railroad for the Forrest and other extensions.

The direct liability of the province, at the close of the year, with respect to the Manitoba and Northwestern Railway, was approximately $787,426, to cover which, with the interest to accrue until the maturity of the debentures, the province held as security 542,600 acres of land in the Northwest Territories.

The Doukhobors.-The main body of this sect, about 15,000 in number, occupies the high plateaus of Transcaucasia, in Russia. Here, where the rigors of the climate will not permit the maturing of ordinary crops, are great natural meadows, and cattle-raising is almost the sole industry. The inhabitants live largely upon beef; every year hundreds of animals are broken to the yoke, and one of their chief sources of wealth is the carrying of freight in their ox-wagons over the rough mountain roads. The society was founded in central Russia in the early part of the eighteenth century, and the name, given to it many years afterward by one of its leaders, is compounded from two Russian words: 'doukh," meaning "spirit," and "bor," an abbreviation of "boratsia," meaning "to wrestle." Fanaticism has marked the history of these Doukhobors, or Spirit Wrestlers, from their inception, and they have suffered not alone from the terrible persecutions of the state and the church, but even more from the tyranny of their leaders, who from the beginning made themselves absolute in their power. These taught, in addition to the doctrine of the founder-that God dwells in the human soul, and that this indwelling essence is the supreme guide to life and light-that Christ himself was merely a sinless man, whose purity gave force to the divinity within him, and that their leaders were also sinless men, qualified by their superior excellence to guide the people. They also taught that it was a sin to read and write, that the Bible was not inspired, and that printing was the invention of Satan to lure souls to destruction. One of their leaders, toward the middle of the century, declared himself Christ's rep

resentative on earth, and surrounded himself with 12 apostles and 12 archangels to do his bidding. Kapustin, who followed him, taught that God in men dwelt in his fullest power in the most godlike men. This power was in him; therefore he was God. He called upon his followers to fall down and worship him, and brought down a flood of hatred and persecution upon the sect. Many of the Doukhobors were cast into prison, and all the powers of the church and the state were directed

DOUKHOBORS.

against them. However, they appeared only to thrive under the persecution. In 1801 Alexander I ordered the persecution stopped and released those in the prisons; but he was soon forced to withdraw his kindly treatment, the Doukhobors growing under it even more arrogant and refusing to obey the civil laws. Finally the Doukhobors appealed to the Emperor to settle them in some uninhabited place where they might worship after their own belief without offending the orthodox. They were permitted to remove to the region north of the Sea of Azov, and here thousands of them built homes for themselves. But here, official restraint being removed, they were even more subject to the brutality and passions of their leaders, and within a few years conditions became so horrible that the Government, about 1835, removed the Doukhobors to what was then the wilderness of Transcaucasia. Here they have lived ever since, having almost no relations other than business with the people around them. In recent years, while they have followed implicitly the direction of their leaders in religious matters, under the careful surveillance of the Government officials many of the social and political abuses that they suffered formerly have been done away with.

In 1887 the sect was divided by a rival candidacy for the leadership, and the bitterness of this fight and the hard feelings growing out of it drove part of this unhappy people to seek homes

and peace in a new land. Negotiations were opened with several governments in an endeavor to establish them in a colony, and finally they were accepted by Canada. The first colony, 2,000 in number, arrived early in 1899, under the leadership of Count Leo Tolstoi, who with other philanthropists had become interested in their welfare, and were granted free lands in Manitoba. The first impressions of the Doukhobors were most favorable, and in the following year their number was increased by additional immigration to about 7,000 in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The Government loaned to the poorer families seed, plows, and other facilities for making their first crop. About threefourths of this loan was repaid out of the crop of 1900. They had the esteem of all their neighbors, filled the schools with their children, and were rapidly learning to speak and read the English language. The climate, so similar to that of their old home in the highlands of Transcaucasia, seemed especially adapted to their advancement, and from poverty they had struggled into comfortable circumstances and many were saving money. A few realized the necessity of adapting their beliefs to their new conditions of life; but the great majority, particularly those of the Swan river settlements, in Manitoba, and about Yorkton, Assiniboia, clung to the old doctrines. In addition they adopted a vegetarian diet, refusing not only to eat butter, eggs, or any article of food that was even remotely connected with an animal, but as well to wear any clothing of animal origin or to use cattle or horses as beasts of burden.

Their first difference with the Canadian Gov- ernment came about through their refusal to take the patents for their land individually, insisting that all holdings should be communal. Then they refused to comply with the laws of the Dominion in regard to marriage and divorce, insisting upon settling all these questions according to conscience and their interpretation of the Bible. In 1901 the Swan river Doukhobors, mindful of their lifelong feud with the Russian Government, refused to pay the school taxes. Their stock was seized and sold to meet the arrears, and this seems to have taught them a permanent lesson. They are gradually adopting the use of animals for heavy farm work, and very few, if any of them, joined their brethren in the uprising of 1902. Their strange beliefs excited much curiosity and interest, but no serious trouble was expected until the summer of 1902, when, without warning, they turned all their horses, cattle, and sheep loose upon the prairies, and men and women took their places at the plow and hauled the heavy loads of farm produce to the towns, in some instances 50 miles distant. The mounted police rounded up the herds, and the stock was sold by the Government and the money put to the credit of the communities. The harvest was gathered with reaping-hooks and thrashed out with flails. During the autumn agitators continued to work among them, and the people, earnest in their faith and unshaken in their belief in their leaders, gathered in great meetings. From time to time came rumors of villages deserted, and of mobs of fanatics preparing for a descent upon Yorkton in a great pilgrimage to seek Jesus, from whom they believed themselves to have received a message that his second coming was near at hand. These rumors were denied persistently by the authorities, who must have known the truth, and the result was that when, on the night of Oct. 27, between 1,500 and 2,000 Doukhobors, men, women, and children, camped within 3 miles

of Yorkton there was no organization to cope with the situation, and for ten days the Doukhobors overran the country. At no time was there any fear of violence from the pilgrims, for the Doukhobors' doctrine teaches universal peace; but the suffering from cold and starvation was pitiable, and, swayed as they were by their implicit faith in their crazy leaders, all efforts were futile to persuade them to give up the search and return to their farms. All night long fresh bands continued to arrive. Some remained awake, chanting and praying, but the majority, worn out by their long tramp and stupid with cold and hunger, lay down to sleep in the open, with little or no protection from the biting wind and with the thermometer 10° below freezing. In the morning the immigration officials, interpreters, and citizens attempted to persuade them to turn back; but this was only the signal for a fresh outburst of singing and praying, and the mob soon followed the deputation into the town. "It was a motley crowd that entered the public square. First came the men bareheaded, clad in the coarsest cotton garments, and not very much of even those. Most of them walked in their bare feet, but a few wore rubber boots, and some wore short boots made from braids of binder twine. As they marched along they chanted a weird, rhythmic hymn, which at times rose almost to a martial strain. Next in the line came the litters on which the sick were being carried, and at the end of the procession the women and children dragged their feet wearily one after the other. The women were clad much the same as

and the mounted police, cut out from the main body the women and children and the sick, and housed them in available places of shelter. These were not allowed to leave the buildings, and the men, realizing the firmness of the authorities, were forced to abandon them. The women refused all food, and pleaded passionately to be allowed to join the men on the march. During the days following, their condition, and particularly that of the children, was beyond description. Many became insane, all were starving, and all were insistent in their belief that they had received a spirit message and must find Jesus. After a night spent in prayer and the chanting of songs of praise, nearly 600 of the men set out on the long march of 300 miles eastward across the snow-covered prairie to Winnipeg, Manitoba', where they confidently expected to meet the Saviour, who, reincarnated, was to lead them forth to evangelize the world. An eye-witness thus describes the weird procession: "I overtook them at Binscarth, a little village on the Northwest branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway about 200 miles from Winnipeg. They came straggling into the town in a procession 2 miles long. Picturesque figures they were, mostly clad in blue and with gaudily colored scarfs. The wide, flaring skirts of their coats were kilted behind. Though the snow lay 3 inches deep on the ground, fully a score were barefoot. More than double that number were hatless. In front strode a majestic figure black as Boanerges and with a voice like a bull of Bashan. He was barefoot. On his head was a brilliant red handker

the men, and the children were also forced to adopt the inadequate cotton garments. Babes in arms clutched at their mothers' breasts in vain, and their thin, blue little faces, their starved appearance, and their heartrending cries were the first to bring the citizens to a full sense of the seriousness of the situation. Each of the pilgrims carried slung over the shoulder a bag containing about half a peck of bread, made from the whole wheat ground between stones and baked into a hard mass. This was cut into squares and soaked in what water could be found by the roadside to make it edible. This was all the food that the wanderers had brought with them, and it would be exhausted in a very short time. The young children could not subsist upon it, and many were on the verge of starvation." The immigration officials, aided by cowboys

chief, and his body was clothed in a long, dusty, white felt mantle reaching almost to his feet. The Binscarth people gave them food-dry oatmeal, which they poured in little heaps on blankets, half a dozen pilgrims helping themselves from each heap. The meal was preceded by their favorite chant from the eighth chapter of Romans and by the repetition in unison of prayer. Then the pilgrims sat in parallel lines and ate oatmeal dry from the sack. This, with bread, apples, and the dried rose-haws picked from the prairie rose-bushes, formed their menu. After the meal, which lasted about an hour, they repaired to the back yards of the residences, and for a quarter of an hour the pumps were worked without cessation to satisfy their thirst. An hour afterward the procession was formed and the eastward journey resumed. . . . The snow began

each took a handful of dry oatmeal and munched it. Some scattered in the darkness to hunt for the dried fruit of the rose-bush. With no shelter, under the open sky, they lay down on the snowy prairie, wearied with their 20-mile tramp. Before flinging themselves down they sang a psalm and quoted Scripture verses responsively, standing meanwhile with bare heads while the snow fell quietly over them." Many dropped out of the ranks from sheer exhaustion and lack of nutritious food, and many others would have fallen by the way had not their stronger comrades made litters and bore them along. They arrived at Minnedosa, 100 miles west of Winnipeg, in the night of Nov. 7, and on the morning of the 8th attempted to resume their journey, with the thermometer at 10° below zero. They were forcibly detained by the townspeople and farmers until the arrival of a military special train with 500 mounted police. After a slight struggle, the whole body were locked in the cars and carried back to Yorkton, to be forcibly returned to their villages.

MARYLAND. (See under UNITED STATES.) MASSACHUSETTS. (See under UNITED

STATES.)

MEDICINE, ADVANCES IN. The Mosquito Diseases.-The remarkable etiology of yellow fever, which was worked out in 1901 by the Yellow-Fever Commission of the United States in Cuba, has during the past year received practical confirmation in a number of localities, notably in Havana. New measures for combating the disease, based on the mosquito theory, were adopted in that city immediately after the publication of the commission's report.

The altogether astounding results which have been obtained by the first year's application of these methods in Havana leave practically no doubt as to the mosquito's agency in causing yellow fever, and are almost equally emphatic as to this insect's being the sole agency for its spread. The results are so striking and furnish such convincing proof of the truth of the mosquito theory

endemic in Havana. As far back as the historic records go, a month has never passed until the American occupation without a death from yellow fever, "and there has probably in all this time never been a day on which there was not a case of this disease in Havana." Up to July of the first year of the American occupation there was little yellow fever in the city. Then immigrants began to pour in, and about 16,000 reached Havana between July and Dec. 31, 1899. During this period a serious epidemic began.

In February, when Major Gorgas was appointed chief sanitary inspector of the city, a system of compulsory notification was enforced; every case being promptly isolated and quarantined. In case of death the body was buried with all sanitary precautions, and the sick-room thoroughly disinfected. The general death-rate of the city was meanwhile decreasing under the improved sanitary conditions, but the greatest care and watchfulness produced no decrease of the yellow-fever death-rate. The epidemic continued throughout the spring and summer, and reached serious proportions, even for Havana, in the fall. During 1900 there were 1,244 cases, with 310 deaths. All classes suffered. During this work $25,000 a month was spent, and 300 men employed every day. At the beginning of 1901 the non-immune population was larger than it had ever been before, and hence the conditions were favorable for a still more serious epidemic than that of 1900. The deaths in January and February were numerous. At about this time the results of the Army Board's investigation were published, and Gen. Wood, who was determined to do all in his power to improve the sanitary condition of the city, authorized Major Gorgas to go to any reasonable expense in testing the new theory.

As a result of this decision an ordinance was at once issued requiring all people within the city limits to keep receptacles containing water mosquito-proof." Inspectors were appointed who went about and enforced this ordinance, ac

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companied by men with oil-cans, who covered the surface of all puddles and cesspools about the dwellings, and destroyed all the receptacles in which mosquito larvæ were found. After a sufficient time for compliance with the new rule was thought to have elapsed all persons on whose premises larvæ were found were fined. Fifty men were employed in this work, and 100 men in the suburbs killing larvæ and filling up puddles. Coincident with these out-of-door measures all hospitals where yellow fever was received were ordered thoroughly screened. In cases occurring in private houses the house was screened by the health department. All infected buildings were thoroughly disinfected with pyrethrum powder; this drug stupefies the mosquitoes, which fall to the floor, and may then be swept up and destroyed.

This was used in preference to more powerful substances, because of its harmlessness to furniture, hangings, etc., and the short time required before the rooms are again ready for occupancy. Forty men were employed in this work. One hundred and ninety men were used in enforcing the new regulations as against 300 during the previous year.

In January, 1901, there were 24 cases of fever, with 7 deaths; in February there were 8 cases and 5 deaths. The new regulations were put in force on Feb. 27. In March there were 2 cases, in April 3, in May 2, and in June none at all. On July 1 all disinfection of so-called fomitesinfected clothing, bedding, etc., was entirely discontinued. In July there were 4 cases and 1 death, in August 6 cases and 2 deaths, and in September 1 case. During October, November, and December there were none whatever. October and November have always been months when yellow fever was particularly rife in Havana. There is good reason for believing that the cases after those occurring in May were due to infection from a neighboring suburb, where a yellow-fever epidemic was in progress.

In the first ten months following the enforcement of the new regulations there were only 17 cases of yellow fever, as against something like 1,200 during the corresponding months of the previous year. As Dr. Gorgas says, "this is evidence of the practical demonstration of the mosquito theory.'

On Nov. 6, 1902, he was able to say, before the New York Academy of Medicine: It is now over a year since the last case of yellow fever occurred in Havana, and if the disease can be kept out of the city for twenty years, I think yellow fever will be completely exterminated in North America, for Havana has been the great center of infection."

The later Vera Cruz Yellow-Fever Commission has entirely confirmed the findings of the United States Army Commission in Havana. They attributed the prevalence of the disease in Vera Cruz to the custom of the Mexicans of gathering rain-water for drinking purposes, and allowing it to stand about unprotected. War on these water-barrels has reduced yellow fever in the city over 50 per cent.

Sanitary measures directed against malaria based on the mosquito theory have furnished equally convincing results.

The importance of the practical demonstration of the truth of these startling theories it is hard to overestimate. It may in many sections eventually lead to a large increase of real-estate values, and prove to have an important bearing in determining the feasibility of large engineering enterprises in tropical countries. The one prae

tically insurmountable difficulty in the construction of the Panama Canal has been the health of the men employed. The work on this undertaking, and also on the isthmian railway, was stopped many times simply by the "dying off of all the workmen. So that it may be fairly said that the building of the isthmian canal is more a sanitary than an engineering problem." The two scourges of the isthmian country are malaria and yellow fever, and both of these diseases are now preventible, or at any rate can be controlled and kept within narrow limits by the use of mosquito-netting. Many sections of country in Africa and India are now practically uninhabit able because of malarial fevers, and whole districts in Ceylon have been almost depopulated by malaria; and even in this country in many sections the mosquito is an effective agency in preventing the growth of population and real-estate values. The vexatious and expensive methods of disinfection and quarantine which have heretofore been considered necessary in yellow-fever epidemics, and in the case of infected ships, have already been discontinued in Havana, and will probably soon be discarded elsewhere. Dr. Doty, the health officer of the port of New York, has recommended their discontinuance in that city.

At the annual Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America, held at New Haven, Oct. 28 and 29, 1902, Major Gorgas offered the following resolution:

"Resolved, That in view of the establishment of the fact that yellow fever is transmitted only by the mosquito, this conference is of the opinion that there is no longer necessity for the disinfection of clothing in yellow-fever cases, bedding fabrics, or effects of any kind, but simply to take measures looking to the control of the sick and the extermination of infected mosquitoes. In cases in which non-immunes have been exposed to infection, they should be observed during the period of incubation."

This resolution was the report of the Committee on Yellow-Fever Resolutions. It was spread upon the proceedings, but the conference refused to commit itself to the "sole mosquito theory." At the meeting of the American Public Health Association in New Orleans early in December a long discussion of yellow fever and mosquitoes occurred; but although a majority of the delegates believed in the theory which holds the mosquito to be the sole causative agent, a small minority, who remained unconvinced, prevented a resolution favoring open quarantine.

The report of the Surgeon-General of the United States Army for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902, states that there were recorded during the year 35,180 cases of malarial disease, with a death-rate of only 0.59 per cent. Important results regarding cases of so-called latent and masked infection were obtained at the Presidio general hospital in San Francisco. It is well known that malarial infections may remain latent for long periods. Among the returned soldiers from the Philippines, 219 of the 1,082 cases (20 per cent.) which showed malarial parasites in the blood were found to be of the latent type. The report insists on the importance of blood examinations in all tropical diseases, and states that a malarial infection complicating any other disease seriously compromises the patient's chances of recovery. Cases have been observed where the discovery of the malarial parasite has undoubtedly saved the patient's life.

Of interest in connection with the mosquito diseases is a recent monograph on The Culicida of the World, in three volumes, by F. W. Theo