been pointed out that this specialization has tended to express itself by multiplication of independent departments and other administrative units, each devoted to its own interests. But the development of specialization tends in the long run to defeat itself; the point is soon reached where the specialist finds that extension of his own field carries him into other areas. The physicist must become a chemist; the chemist must become a bacteriologist; the bacteriologist must become a geneticist; the mathematician must become a philosopher or poet; the philosopher must become a neurologist. In other words, high specialization demands familiarity with, or at least understanding of, many other fields of knowledge; it comes to realize that all knowledge is related, that progress in a special field is possible only in relation to other fields. As soon as this stage of specialized investigation is reached, the demand arises from the specialists themselves that some form of training be provided early in the educational process which will enable specialization to be undertaken with an understanding of the relationship of the sector of specialization to the whole field of knowledge.

The first expression of this demand usually takes the form of attempts to present a survey of a single field, one of the sciences for instance, so that later specializations may be viewed in perspective with reference to that science. The next step is the survey course which attempts to relate the different sciences so that specialization may be seen in still truer perspective. Or the survey may in the same way be in the literary or social fields. Seven of the landgrant institutions report survey courses of these types.

The next step is the orientation course which attempts to give an integrated picture, not of a single area or of a group of fields, but of the entire range of knowledge. The description of such a course given at the University of Minnesota serves to describe the purposes and scope of this type of solution for the problem of preparing for specialization.

Content. The content of the course is determined by its purpose. The purpose is not primarily to give a survey but the survey is selected as the best means of accomplishing the purpose. The course will include a limited survey of (1) nature and man, the relations of man to his environment; (2) organized society, its foundations, its service to the individual, and its demands on its members; and (3) society and culture, the significance of the forms of human culture.

Purpose. The purpose of the course is to help students to acquire during their first year those intellectual habits and methods which are necessary for success as students and those habits and attitudes in moral and social relations which are necessary for usefulness both as scholars and as citizens. On the intellectual side the course aims to develop the power to weigh evidence and reach sound conclusions, the power of independent thought and judgment, the spirit of inquiry, the habit of open-mindedness, and the zeal for

exploration and enterprise in intellectual pursuits. The method of the course is to be that of class discussion on the basis of assigned readings. From his readings the student will learn how to use the library effectively. From the class discussions he will learn to criticize his own judgments and those of others. The discussions with his fellows, the materials selected for the course, and the method of presentation will stimulate him to farther study and investigation.

On the social side much will depend upon the spirit and attitude of the staff of instructors. It is hoped that the materials will be so treated as to heighten the feeling of responsibility and strengthen the conviction of interdependence among men as members of communities and nations.

The course is intended as an orientation course for freshmen students as men and women, not as an introduction to any group of studies such as the social sciences or even to the whole college curriculum as such.

Description of a course of this kind sounds remarkably like the familiar description of the purposes and objectives of the 4-year liberal college of arts and sciences. Nine land-grant institutions report orientation courses. Although examination of the details of what is offered shows that few attack the work with purposes as general and ambitious as those described in the Minnesota course, nevertheless, the viewpoint and the tendency are similar.

The next step in logical if not chronological development is the junior college or lower division offering the work intended to provide the basic and general education essential to successful prosecution of all specializations-in other words, a shorter unified college of arts and sciences. The orientation course attempts a great deal in a very brief period, it must partake of some of the characteristics of smattering knowledge. The junior college idea lengthens the period but may stop short of the four years of the independent college of arts and sciences because much of the work of the old unit for general education is now done by the high school.

Many practices recently adopted by land-grant institutions point to growing tendencies toward junior college development. Seven institutions have established a compulsory stopping place at the end of the sophomore year for those who lack the qualifications for advanced instruction in the junior and senior years; 14 other institutions report that they favor this plan but have not yet revised their instruction to put it into effect.

The plan in effect in California in the college of letters and sciences carries the idea to its logical conclusion. In the University of California the work of the lower division comprises the studies of the freshman and sophomore years. The junior certificate in the college of letters and science is required for admission to the upper division. Students who transfer from other colleges of the University of California or from other institutions are required to meet the junior certificate requirements, but are not held strictly to the time distri

bution of requirements, if the credit allowed them in the University of California amounts to at least 60 units. In the lower division of the college of letters and sciences it is expected that the student, in addition to fulfilling the prerequisites for the major work upon which he will concentrate in the upper division, will make an effort to establish a basis for that breadth of culture which will give him a realization of the methods and results of some of the more important types of intellectual endeavor, and a mental perspective that will aid him in research without unduly limiting his opportunity to satisfy his individual tastes and preferences. Certain courses taken in the high school are accepted as fulfilling in part or in whole some of these junior certificate requirements. It is desirable that the student should so arrange his high-school program as to reduce the required work in the fields of foreign language, mathematics, and natural science. This makes his program more flexible, gives him a greater freedom of choice, and prepares him to pass more quickly into advanced work or into new fields of study. In no case, however, does the satisfaction of junior certificate requirements in the high school reduce the number of units required in the university for the junior certificate (60) or for the degree (124). The degree requirement of 124 units is calculated on the assumption that the student will normally take 64 units of work in the lower division, including the prescribed work in military science and physical education, and 60 units in the upper division. However, the junior certificate will be granted on the completion of not less than 60 units of college work and the fulfillment of certain specific requirements.

The junior colleges which have been established to take care of the first two years of college work have affected the accrediting agencies in certain States where junior college graduates transfer their credits to take the last two years in the land-grant college. Many land-grant colleges have not felt the need of making any adjustments in their credits because there are few junior colleges in certain States and practically no graduates entering in the junior and senior years. Several land-grant colleges, however, state that certain changes have been made. In answer to the question, What steps, if any, have been taken by your institution to adapt your curricula to the preparation of graduates of junior colleges of liberal arts in your State or locality?—the following replies are significant:

Arkansas. We are trying to get the junior colleges to have their general course fit our first two years, so far as possible. We have some advanced introductory courses.

Kansas. With 1929-30 a reduction to 120 hours for the curriculum in general science becomes effective. Military science and physical education will not be required of students entering junior colleges.

Kentucky. We are on a plan of upper and lower divisions which fits the junior-college idea.

Arizona.-We have been in constant conference with such institutions from their conception. They have tried to shape their curricula in conformity with ours and have sought our advice and even oversight.

Minnesota.-The adapting is done by the junior colleges.

Mississippi. No special steps yet, but we allow limited credit from those approved by the State accrediting agency (a junior college accrediting commission).

Missouri. The university has influenced the junior colleges to duplicate the first two years of university work.

Nevada. Where junior colleges are standardized and accredited, their graduates are excused from certain freshman and sophomore requirements according to their subjects and allowed to graduate by meeting major and minor requirements.

Oklahoma.-By joint committees and admitting students to schools of the college to full junior standing in all schools save science and letters; this only by checking courses.

Plans and methods used by the land-grant institutions to secure proper distribution and concentration of work have been presented.2 Careful examination of these statements will show that many of the institutions are emphasizing distinctions between upper or lower division work in such fashion as to secure during the first two years a concentration of the subjects designed for general educational purposes and to delay until after the end of the sophomore year any very high degree of specialization.

2 Pp. 34-36.

Chapter VII.-Conclusion and Recommendation

1. The united, independent college of arts and sciences with general education as its purpose has practically disappeared from the land-grant institutions.

2. The arts and science subjects are now taught: (a) In arts and science divisions characterized by multiplicity and high specialization of the courses offered; (b) in separate organizations for humanities and social sciences and for the sciences, also characterized by great specialization; and (c) in a variety of technical schools and colleges that tend to emphasize specialization of both arts and sciences with reference to their own technological purposes.

3. Attempts to set up arts and science curricula for purposes of general education by combining courses in arts and science subjects offered by different institutional units is difficult if not impossible since the highly specialized courses offered are inappropriate to general educational purposes. This is true of introductory and elementary courses in many subjects because they are intended primarily as preparation for specialization in the fields with which they deal.

4. High specialization leads ultimately into areas of relationship to other specializations and tends to demand increasingly a preparatory period or form of education that will create understanding of the relationships of all knowledge. Perspective becomes essential to progress in specialization. Hence develops once more recognition of the need for some form of general education appropriate to modern conditions.

5. There is little probability of return to the 4-year college of arts and sciences as the instrument for satisfying this need in the case of students who have or develop intentions of ultimate specialization for purposes of vocational employment or scientific scholarship.

6. For the well-to-do and leisure classes the 4-year college of arts and sciences can not be provided in an atmosphere of and by means of courses intended for high specialization. The general purpose college of arts and sciences can serve this function only by a new selection and arrangement of the materials of knowledge for the specific purposes of general education.