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powers of the Constitution, yet the motives which usually govern mankind, and which are likely to operate on the great majority of the officers and agents of Government, are on the side of popular rights in the smaller circles, and of the political rights of the several Commonwealths. The grand moral tendency, therefore, of the political organization of the United States, is, not to increase the power and influence of the General Government, but to hold it in check by the most rigid construction of the Constitution, and by the narrowest application of its powers. And such in fact has been the history of American politics.

CHAPTER III.

AMERICAN SOCIETY A DYNASTY OF OPINION.

By a dynasty of opinion, we mean, a preponderance of influence that is wielded by the activities of the social state, over the constitutional fabric of social institutions. The repeated, not to say, habitual developments of this feature, in the action of American society, have already made their impression on the world, although the cause is a secret, the philosophy hidden. Whether, indeed, we have been successful in giving it a name, can only be determined by the impression which the reading of this chapter shall make on the minds of others. We have observed a predominant influence of this kind operating in so many forms, and producing such uniform results in American society, as to indicate a character, a habit; and have, therefore, thought proper to give our own idea a palpable shape, and to make a few remarks upon it.

European society, in respect to this feature, is more under the control of ancient institutions, and of an ancient order of things. It is comparatively mechanical in its structure and operations. The

public mind is cast in a mould, that has been prepared for it from time immemorial. Usage is the law of such a state of things; and the main force of legislation, and of government, in all its forms, is applied to the maintenance of usage. The innovations of experiment, in the ordering of society, are objects of dread; at least, are ventured upon with diffidence and caution. It is true, that the spirit of innovation is abroad, as the schoolmaster is said to be; and mind is on the march-whither, it might be difficult to say. Nevertheless, there is a something in the general action of society, called "the march of mind," and, " the spirit of the age;" the last of which, if we mistake not, was once tossed into the British House of Lords by Earl Grey, Prime Minister, as a thing worthy of some notice.

These, indeed, are somewhat mysterious and cabalistic phrases, and susceptible of a variety of interpretation, as is the talismanic couple of "liberty and equality;" and like the latter, they are supposed to have a great deal of meaning, and actually wield a large share of influence.

But the schoolmaster of Europe has, as yet, done much less than the schoolmaster of America; and the march of mind, in the former quarter of the world, has been more effectually repressed than in the latter. All is bound up and circumscribed in an artificial state of society, which has, indeed, been shaken, and to some extent dissolved and reconstructed. But all the violent changes that have

taken place, have very naturally reverted to, and superinduced, a condition of things after the old model, sometimes worse, and sometimes, it may be, better. What France has gained, or is likely to gain in the end, by this process, is even yet problematical; and after an age of overturn and ravage, which Europe has suffered in consequence of the great French revolution of the last century, her states and empires are seeking repose again under the shadow and protection of her ancient institutions, or something as much like them, as may be convenient to re-establish. The old regime is fighting for its rights, and yields only to such modifications as are unavoidable.

All we mean, however, by these remarks, is to represent, that the old forms of society in Europe are strong; and that the mind of man is constrained to act somewhat mechanically by reason of their force. It cannot break through them; it cannot trample them under foot; it may alter and modify; but still the ancient edifice stands in all its principal parts. Though portions of it be undermined, or so battered as to tumble to the ground, the same timbers and stones are necessarily snatched from the ruins, and put together again. In other words, in Europe, ancient institutions, though disturbed, and in some respects modified, still maintain their supremacy over modern innovations, and law over opinion; or opinion is subjected to law, however it may often play rampant and show discontent.

But in America, the ancient regimen of Europe as to its grand characteristics and fundamental principles, has been entirely subdued. Not a vestige of the monarchical, or of the hereditary aristocratic, remains. The revolution in society has been a complete upturn and overturn; and the whole of the new fabric has been based on the popular or democratic principle. The most perfect freedom of popular opinion has been admitted as a fundamental and all pervading element of the social state; and what is more, popular opinion reigns supreme and absolute. It is above law; it is law itself. Antiquity is nothing, and usage is nothing, when it comes in conflict with this power.

Nevertheless, it would be an unfair representation of American society, to say, that this power operates generally in a manner unfavourable to public order and tranquillity; or that it is in the habit of doing violence to the works of its own creation, in that constitution of society which it has established. It is an attribute of this power to show respect to its own productions, for the reason that they are its own; and no people in the world are probably greater lovers of order in society, than the Americans; although, it must be confessed, their manner of showing it may seem a contradiction, and rather incomprehensible. They are excitable, quick in action, and sometimes run riot in their demonstrations of conscious freedom; but respect for the law soon returns with its influence, if there be any thing in the

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