citrus, cocoa, coffee and pimento £5 million. In 1970 earnings from domestic (merchandise) exports grew to £139 million, an increase of £20 million or 16.8% on the figure for the previous year.

For the year 1971/72, Government revenue (including loan receipts) is estimated at £150.6 million and net expenditure £150.4 million.

Development continues apace with Government schemes for schools, hospitals, water supply and tourist facilities and the private sector concentrating on industry, services, port facilities, hotels and houses.

National Day, Independence Day, which is celebrated on the first Monday in August, commemorates the achievement of Independence on 6th August 1962.

HISTORY

When Columbus discovered Jamaica on 4th May 1494 he found it peopled by Arawak Indians, estimated to number some 60,000. No pre-Arawak remains have been found, and it would appear that Jamaica was uninhabited before about A.D. 1000. Columbus took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain, but it was not until Juan de Esquivel was appointed the first Governor in 1509 that European occupation began. The island became a fief held on special terms by the descendants of Columbus as Marquises of Jamaica; but it was never a large or flourishing colony and served little more than as a supply base for expeditions to the mainland. The first capital at Sevilla Nueva near the modern St Ann's Bay was soon abandoned in favour of Villa de la Vega, on the site of the present Spanish Town. Under the Spanish the Arawak Indians died out and had disappeared entirely by the time the English arrived.

It was in 1655 that an English expedition under Admirals Penn and Venables, after failing in their objective of capturing Hispaniola, landed at Passage Fort on 10th May. They met with little resistance, Villa de la Vega falling quickly, but Spanish guerrillas held out in the interior until 1660 when the Spanish Governor and his followers escaped to Cuba. They took with them most of the slaves whom they had imported from Africa; but some of these remained in the fastnesses of the interior, forming the nucleus of what were later known as the Maroons.

General Edward D'Oyley was appointed the first civil Governor in 1661 and was succeeded the following year by Lord Windsor, who brought with him a Royal Proclamation giving the people of Jamaica the rights of citizens of England and the right to make their own laws. Although Port Royal was the first capital, in 1664 much of the administration was removed to Spanish Town, where the first House of Assembly, comprising 23 freeholders, met on 20th January that year.

During the early years colonisation was slow, although the population was increased by 1,600 immigrants from Nevis in 1656 and 1,000 from Barbados in 1664. In 1670 the Treaty of Madrid recognised English sovereignty over all American territories in English possession, and removed the pressing need for constant defence against Spanish attack. Using slaves brought from Africa, sugar, cocoa, indigo and later coffee were planted, and Jamaica became a land of large estates often with absentee landlords. Although a further 1,200 settlers arrived from Surinam, the European population began to diminish again. Meanwhile, with official encouragement, Port Royal became the base and stronghold of the English buccaneers who, under Henry Morgan, roved widely

over the Caribbean raiding Spanish territory. The plunder which they captured greatly enriched the town until it became the finest town in the West Indies, only to be destroyed by an earthquake on 7th June 1692. In its place Kingston, the modern capital, was developed.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century difficulties arose with the Maroons whose numbers had been increased by fugitive slaves. Aided by the difficult terrain of the interior, they took heavy toll of the English troops and militia sent against them; and what is known as the Maroon War lasted for many years, until in 1737 those in the west of the island accepted honourable terms which guaranteed them liberty and certain lands. A similar agreement in 1740 ended the rebellion in the Blue Mountains.

Port Royal recovered from the earthquake to become an important naval base associated with such names as Benbow, Parker, Rodney and Nelson. It was Rodney's victory over the French in 1782 at the Battle of the Saints which saved Jamaica from possible capture by the French; and from that date neither the French nor the Spanish ever again made a serious attempt to capture the island.

During the eighteenth century thousands more slaves were brought from Africa, many from the Gold Coast; and a high proportion of the African words which now survive in Jamaican speech, and much of the folk-lore, are of Ashanti origin. Slave ownership was governed by Slave Laws; at first these were principally concerned with the interests of the owners but they gradually evolved until, in the period immediately preceding emancipation, the protection of the slaves was given greater emphasis. Agitation against the slave trade and against slavery itself began during the last half of the eighteenth century and had its origin in England, being part of the great humanitarian movement. As a result of the efforts of Clarkson, Wilberforce and others, the slave trade was abolished by the British Parliament in 1807. Slavery was abolished in August 1834 and complete freedom for the slaves was declared in August 1838.

During the early years of the nineteenth century Nonconformist missionaries came out in increasing numbers and worked to prepare the people for emancipation and to remove the civil disabilities endured by the free coloureds. Their efforts were rewarded when full citizenship was granted to all free people of colour in 1832.

The abolition of slavery, coming at a time when Jamaica's importance as a military and naval station was declining, caused a great decrease in the wealth of the island. The decline was quickened by the free-trade policy of the British government which, from 1846, allowed slave-produced sugar from Cuba and elsewhere to enter the British market on equal terms with sugar from Jamaica. The abolition of the slave trade on the other hand led to a shortage of labour, and Indian immigrants were introduced in 1842 to be followed by Chinese in 1854. In 1869 the system of indentured labour was established, attracting considerable numbers of East Indians. Yet a further result of this great social change was that the estate ceased to be the main social unit; and the population began to re-form itself into new communities and new settlements.

In the 1860s disputes between the planters and their labourers grew increasingly bitter and culminated in an organized rebellion at Morant Bay in 1865. The severity with which this was crushed led to the recall of Governor Eyre and Crown Colony Government replaced the old representative system.

From this date prosperity began gradually to return. In 1860 a steamer service was opened between Jamaica and New York, offering facilities for the profitable export of Jamaican fruits which had previously only been used for local consumption. The first shipment of bananas was made in 1868, and the trade was soon firmly established. The economy of the country was helped by the building of railways and by the improvement and development of roads; and by the close of the century a spirit of self-confidence had been created and the small farmers were probably at the height of their prosperity. The Great Exhibition of 1891, opened by the future King George V and attended by over 300,000 people, expressed the confident mood of the island.

The disastrous earthquake of 1907 damaged every building in Kingston and killed some 800 people; the lower part of the city was completely destroyed. A new city of reinforced concrete rose in its place.

After the First World War came a time of fluctuating prosperity; but the rapid increase in the population, the onslaught of disease in the banana plantations and a series of storms, together with the effect of the world-wide slump of the '30s, brought another period of economic distress culminating in riots in 1938, a great increase in trade union activity, and the beginnings of rival political parties.

By the end of the Second World War Jamaica's trade was almost entirely with Britain; the production of sugar had expanded, and the export of bananas had recovered in importance as the result of the development of diseaseresistant varieties. Travel restrictions elsewhere led to people in North America turning to the West Indies for their vacation, and led people in Britain to seek holidays within the sterling area. Bauxite was first mined on a commercial basis in 1952 and by 1957 Jamaica had become the world's largest producer. In 1960 bauxite and alumina together accounted for half Jamaica's exports. By that year also for the first time the contribution of manufacturing industries to the gross national income was equal to that of agriculture. But despite all this, unemployment and under-employment have remained problems, aggravated by the great population increase. Emigration which at first was directed towards the United States changed its course, encouraged by the labour shortage in Britain, and in 1961 37,202 emigrants reached Britain from Jamaica.

In 1948 the University College of the West Indies was established outside Kingston and in 1953 the University College Hospital of the West Indies was opened. In November of the same year Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth visited Jamaica. On 2nd April 1962 the University College was granted a Royal Charter and became the University of the West Indies and now grants its own degrees.

The formation of modern political parties can be dated from 1938 when the People's National Party was formed under the leadership of Mr N. W. Manley, with the aim of establishing representative and responsible government for Jamaica within the Commonwealth. It is supported by the National Workers Union to which it is affiliated. The P.N.P. held office from 1955 until April 1962, Mr Manley being Chief Minister and later the first Premier.

The second major political party, the Jamaican Labour Party, was formed in 1943 by Sir Alexander Bustamante. Like the P.N.P. it derives support from labour, the Bustamante Industrial Trades Union being affiliated to the J.L.P. The J.L.P. won a majority of seats in the 1944 General Election and continued to provide the elected members in the Government until a ministerial system was

introduced. Sir Alexander Bustamante was Chief Minister from 1953 to 1955, and returned to office after the elections of April 1962. In the last General Election held on 29th February 1972 the P.N.P., led by Mr. Michael Manley, were returned to office and Mr Hugh Shearer, J.L.P. Prime Minister since April 1967, became Leader of the Opposition.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

For the first few years after its capture by an English expedition, Jamaica was under military Government, but in 1662 the first constitution was introduced by Lord Windsor, the second civil Governor. This provided for an Executive consisting of a Governor, appointed by the Crown, acting with the advice of a nominated Council, and a Legislature consisting of the Governor, the Council and a representative Assembly. This constitution was modified in 1854, and immediately prior to its suspension in 1865 the Executive consisted of the Governor assisted by the Privy Council whose members were appointed by the Crown and included the Chief Justice and other officials, the Bishop of Kingston, all the members of the Executive Council, and representatives of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly. The Executive Committee, forming a link between the Governor and the Assembly, consisted of four persons nominated by the Governor of whom one was from the Legislative Council and three were unofficials from the Legislative Assembly. Formerly the Assembly had been able to originate and appropriate grants of money; but from 1854 no grant could originate except by message from the Governor or through the Executive Committee. The Legislature consisted of the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. The members of the Legislative Council, which formed the Upper Chamber, were appointed by the Crown. There were 17 members, four of whom were official and 13 unofficial. The House of Assembly consisted of 47 elected members, two from each of the 22 Parishes and one from each of the three main towns. They were elected by some 1,800 electors with income or property qualifications.

In 1866, after the Morant Bay uprising, this constitution was replaced by Order in Council of the 11th June of that year by a Crown Colony Government, with the legislative power vested in the Governor acting with the advice and consent of a nominated Legislative Council consisting of 6 Official Members and not more than 5 Non-official Members. Three years later the stipulation requiring there to be 6 Official Members was dropped, the number being left to the discretion of the Crown.

Further changes were made by Orders in Council dated 19th May 1884 and 3rd October 1895.

Under the Constitution introduced in 1944, the functions and membership of the Legislative Council remained unchanged. The Lower House, now known as the House of Representatives, was composed of 32 members all elected by universal adult suffrage. No legislation could be passed and no money voted without the approval of the House of Representatives.

Although the Privy Council continued to exist to advise the Governor on such matters as the exercise of the Royal Prerogative of Mercy, the remission of sentences and the discipline of the Civil Service, its other functions were taken over by an Executive Council formed of the Governor, three ex-officio members, two nominated members and five members elected by the House of Representatives. These elected members were styled Ministers, but although they

were required to answer for certain subjects and Departments in the House of Representatives they had no executive responsibility.

In 1951 discussions with the two political parties and with the non-official members of the Legislative Council were held to consider what further reforms should be undertaken in the constitution. With general agreement, changes were introduced to take effect in June 1953.

The 1953 Constitution provided for the appointment of a Chief Minister and seven other Ministers (all Ministers being drawn from the House of Representatives), thus increasing from five to eight the number of members of the House of Representatives in the Executive Council and giving them a majority over the official and nominated members. Thenceforth the Ministers exercised wide responsibility in the management of the internal affairs of the island, and had executive functions in regard to nearly all Departments of Government. The Colonial Secretary however remained responsible for defence, public security and the public service and the Attorney-General was responsible for public prosecutions.

Apart from minor modifications and amendments the next important change came in 1957. The 1957 Constitution provided for the withdrawal of all official members from the Executive Council, which thereafter became known as the Council of Ministers, presided over by the Chief Minister. It consisted of ten members of the Government charged with responsibility for specific subjects, and two Ministers without Portfolio chosen from among the non-official members of the Legislative Council, all appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Chief Minister. The Governor could, however, at his discretion, summon special meetings of the Council of Ministers and attend and preside at such meetings.

Official members, with the single exception of the Attorney-General, also withdrew from the Legislative Council and were replaced by two more nonofficial members, the total thus remaining at 15, the permissible minimum.

The newly-created Ministry of Home Affairs became responsible for matters affecting internal security, police and immigration, while the Attorney-General continued to exercise control over public prosecutions. The Governor was not obliged to assign to any Minister responsibility for any business relating to defence, external affairs, dependencies, personnel matters and the audit of Government accounts, and these subjects, with the exception of audit, remained the responsibility of the Chief Secretary.

Jamaica became a member of the Federation of the West Indies on 23rd February 1958. By the Jamaica (Constitution) Order in Council, 1959, which came into operation on 4th July 1959, Jamaica became self-governing in its internal affairs, although its position as a unit territory of the Federation of The West Indies remained unchanged. The new constitution provided for a Privy Council, a Cabinet, a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. The Privy Council, consisting of six members, advised the Governor in the exercise of his disciplinary powers over members of the Government Service and in the exercise of the royal prerogative of mercy.

The Cabinet consisted of the Premier and not less than eleven other Ministers, drawn from the House of Representatives, charged with the general control and direction of the Government. There were also two or three Ministers without Portfolio who sat in the Legislative Council. The Governor was required to act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet, except where the matter was