or disappears in the sand beds of the Botletle and Thamalakane Rivers. The swamps are infested with tsetse fly which is harboured by the shade trees and dense undergrowth, and is spread beyond the margins of the swamp by wild game. However, the advance of the insect has been successfully arrested by insecticide spraying at selected breeding sites. The perimeter of this area is inhabited by the Batawana and allied tribes, numbering 42,000. They are chiefly pastoralists and the cattle population of the district is 120,000, but crops can be produced utilising the residual moisture of the soil in areas which are subject to seasonal flooding, or in other areas under normal rainfall conditions.

The Kalahari Desert extends north of the Botletle River and the Makarikari depression into the Northern State Lands where it gives way to belts of indigenous forest and dense bush sustained by the higher rainfall of the region. Valuable stands of mukwa (Rhodesian teak) and mukusi cover extensive areas, whilst in other parts, where poorer soils are found, mopane forest predominates. The availability of ground water resources, particularly in the southern and eastern sections, and the existence of suitable soils and reliable rainfall in the north-eastern corner of this sub-region indicates a favourable development potential. The remaining areas are populated only by vast herds of game, in whose migratory path the Northern State Lands lie. Elephant numbers alone are estimated at over 10,000. As in the case of the Kalahari Desert, the human population is sparsely scattered around the perimeter.

The climate of the country is generally sub-tropical, but varies considerably with latitude and altitude. The Tropic of Capricorn passes through Botswana, and the northern part therefore lies within the tropics. The southern and south western areas vary between hot steppe with summer rains to desert or semi-desert climate.

During the winter the days are pleasantly warm and the nights cold, with occasional frosts in the north, and heavy frost in the semi-desert areas. The summer is hot but tempered by a prevailing north-easterly breeze which generally springs up during the night and usually lasts until mid-morning.

The annual seasonal winds from the West Coast begin in August and with every drop of humidity extracted during the Kalahari crossing, sweep across the country raising dust and sandstorms. The normally dry atmosphere helps to mitigate the high temperatures throughout the year, though this consistent dryness and constant glaring sunlight added to the effect of altitude can prove trying, particularly to those whose occupation is sedentary. The whole territory lies in the summer rainfall belt, the rains generally beginning in late October and ending in April. May to September are usually completely dry months.

The mean maximum temperature at Gaborone, the capital, which is 3,339 feet above mean sea level, is about 32.5° C (90.5° F). The mean annual rainfall at Gaborone is 21.26 inches.

The 1971 population census of Botswana (31st August 1971) showed that the country's total population was 620,000, of whom 46,000 were Batswana temporarily absent from the country and for the most part working in the Republic of South Africa. There were 11,000 persons who were not citizens of the country. Overall population density is 2.9 persons per square mile, but the rural population densities vary from less than 1 person per square mile over much of the country to 60 persons per square mile in parts of the North East District. The natural rate of population growth is just over 3% per annum.

The main business centres are Francistown (19,000), Gaborone (18,000) and Lobatse (12,000).

In July 1969, the Botswana Airways Corporation took over responsibility for civil aviation from Botswana National Airways, who started operations in November 1965. The external services did not prove viable and from May 1971 Botswana Airways Corporation has only operated internal services. The service to Johannesburg, four times weekly, is at present operated by South African Airways.

There are eighteen government owned airfields and twelve emergency landing grounds in Botswana. The airfield at Gaborone is 5,820 feet in length and capable of accepting DC4 aircraft.

The main railway line from Cape Town to Rhodesia passes through Botswana running practically due north, entering at Ramathlabana, 866 miles from Cape Town, and leaving at Ramaquabane, 394 miles further north. The single track runs roughly parallel to the eastern boundary of Botswana at an average distance from it of about 50 miles. The gauge of the track is 3 ft 6 in. The line is owned and operated by Rhodesia Railways.

The total road mileage in Botswana is about 5000, of which just over half are trunk and main roads. Apart from tarmac-surfaced roads at Gaborone, Lobatse and Francistown, all roads are gravel.

Radio Botswana is the only broadcasting service in the country. It broadcasts in the 31, 49, 60 and 90 metre bands, short wave and also in the medium wave band and on VHF.

The economy of Botswana is based on its cattle industry. Following about five years of below average rainfall, there was a total failure in 1965 which caused the worst crop failure and drought which the territory had experienced for 25 years. It is estimated that approximately 200,000 head of cattle died of starvation. Farmers were handicapped by the fact that their oxen were in very weak condition as a result of the previous season's droughts and in many cases were unable to take advantage of the early rains for ploughing. Large-scale importations of maize and sorghum were necessary, and during 1965 and 1966 emergency measures had to be taken to alleviate what threatened to become a serious famine. The rains and the harvest were good in 1966/67 but in 1967/68 and again in 1968/69 the rains came too late and poor crops necessitated the introduction of emergency feeding measures in certain parts of the country, but the harvest improved in 1969/70.

The development of mineral deposits which have been discovered in the northeastern area of the country will lead to the diversification of the economy, and improvement of Botswana's financial position. After some years of exploration work, Bamangwato Concessions Ltd., a subsidiary of Botswana R.S.T. Ltd., announced in February 1967 that they had at that time proved a total of some 33 million tons of potential copper ore at Matsitama and copper/nickel ore at Selibe/Phikwe. Mining is expected to commence in 1973. The World Bank, Canada and the United States have agreed to provide approximately $58.5 million for the necessary infrastructure. Coal deposits at Morupule near Palapye will be used for the supply of power to serve the mining areas.

Exploitation of the diamond deposits discovered at Orapa by De Beers Prospecting Company is proceeding satisfactorily and full scale mining started in July 1971. A further smaller pipe containing a higher percentage of gem stones is also being investigated.

There was a considerable increase in customs revenue accruing to Botswana account following the 1969 revision of the 1910 Customs Agreement between South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. In 1971/72 the revenue from this source was R.8.3 million and in 1972/73 will be R.12.5 million.

The total value of exports in 1970/71 was R.17.9 million, the bulk of which consisted of animal produce. Imports for 1970/71 totalled R.42.1 million. Following independence, the British Government continued to provide Botswana with budgetary and development aid. For the current three years period 1970-1973, Development Aid up to a maximum of £6.8 million has been agreed plus Budgetary Aid of up to £4.2 million for the two years 1970-1972. As a result of the new Customs agreement and the mining developments, Botswana ceased to need budgetary aid at the end of the 1971/72 financial year. In addition Britain is providing technical assistance including OSAS, experts and advisers, consultancies, training and the services of the Directorate of Overseas Surveys. This is running at over £600,000 per annum. Britain has offered to take over responsibility for the payment of pensions of British officers earned by pre-independence service and to convert the loans provided under the General Compensation Scheme to grants.

The first schools were established by the London Missionary Society during the first half of the last century. As the number of schools increased so did administrative problems and in 1910 the Society and the Chief of the Bangwaketse tribe formed a committee to administer schools in that tribal area. This committee included representatives of the tribe, the Mission and the District Administration. Other tribes followed suit and the system of committee management proved so useful and popular that it was extended to cover practically all educational work being done in tribal areas. Local District Councils were formed in 1966 and today most primary schools are controlled by the local authorities. All professional matters are controlled by the Ministry of Education.

About 18 per cent of the total population are literate in Setswana, and 10 per cent are literate in English (at Standard IV level).

The national day of the Republic of Botswana is the 30th September, commemorating the achievement of Independence in 1966.

HISTORY

The picture presented by most parts of Southern Africa in the first quarter of the 19th century was one of tribal wars, pillage and bloodshed, caused mainly by the expansion of the Zulus under Chaka. This warrior chief had succeeded in welding his people into a disciplined and warlike nation who fell upon everyone unfortunate enough to be within their reach. Their neighbouring tribes therefore fled to all points of the compass, despoiling on their way the peoples in their path and thereby setting up a general movement of destructive migration.

Among these migratory bands were the followers of an amazon called MmaNtatisi and her son Sekonyela, who came from tribes living in the neighbourhood of what is now Lesotho. They united to form a kind of cohesive army, and advanced northwards and westwards, attacking the tribes along their way.

In a different category were the Matabele. These were originally a group of Chaka's people under Mzilikazi, one of Chaka's principal captains. On one of his raids it is said that Mzilikazi embezzled the booty and decided not to return home. He moved north-westwards and, after a destructive march, established

himself near what is now the town of Zeerust, from where he made warlike raids on the tribes within his reach.

Among the victims of Mzilikazi's onslaughts were those known as Batswana, of Western Sotho stock—and hence related to the people of what is now Lesotho --who lived in the western Transvaal and westwards towards the Kalahari. Like other Sotho peoples, their early history is shrouded in legend.

The generally accepted tradition is that the principal tribes of the group are descended from a people ruled by a chief named Masilo who lived about the middle of the 17th century. Masilo had two sons, Mohurutshe and Malope. The former founded the line of the chiefs of the Bahurutshe, while the latter had three sons, Kwena, Ngwato and Ngwaketse. Ngwato and Ngwaketse at different times broke away from Kwena's tribe and went with their followers to live at a distance from each other. The Bahurutshe were set upon first by Mma-Ntatisi's people and then by the Matabele. The home of the Bahurutshe is in the western Transvaal but scattered elements have attached themselves to the present tribes of Botswana. The Bangwaketse, after several migrations, finally settled in their present country around Kanye, while the Bamangwato founded a colony in the vicinity of Shoshong in the area occupied by the tribe today. The descendants of the Kwena section now live around Molepolole. Among the Bamangwato a further split occurred; Tawana, one of the Chief Mathiba's sons seceded at the end of the 18th century and formed a settlement in Ngamiland. The Batswana are still the ruling community in that area.

The Barolong, the greater number of whom today live in the Republic of South Africa, trace the genealogy of their chief to one Rolong, who lived at a time even more remote than did Masilo. The Barolong are settled along the southern border of Botswana and round Mafeking.

Other important tribes of the Batswana are the Bakgatla, the Bamalete, and the Batlokwa. These arrived in Botswana from the Western Transvaal in the 19th century.

The years between 1820 and 1870 saw a number of intertribal disputes. These were complicated by the impact of the Boer trekkers, who did, however, rid the Zeerust area of the Matabele: after losing several engagements with the Boers, Mzilikazi trekked northwards in 1838, attacking the less warlike Batswana and Makalanga on the way. Few of the Batswana chiefs were able to make effective resistance, but in 1840 Chief Sekgoma of the Bamangwato defeated several Matabele raiding parties. About this time, David Livingstone established a mission among the Bakwena, where he stayed until the early fifties.

In 1872 one of the most remarkable Africans of his time succeeded to the chieftainship of the Bamangwato. This was Khama III (the son of Sekgoma), whose youth had been much troubled by dissensions within the tribe and by the ever-present peril of the Matabele. During the first few years of his reign Khama greatly enhanced the standing of his tribe. He was a capable general, and formed a small but well-trained army. With this he earned the respect of Lobengula, son of Mzilikazi, thus obtaining immunity from the depredations of the Matabele. A lifelong and firm adherent of Christianity, Khama introduced many reforms into the life of the tribe, of which the most important, and the one on which he himself set most store, was the total prohibition of alcoholic liquor. A capable if occasionally a harsh administrator, he devoted himself with energy to the organisation of his people.

Though the weaker tribes still suffered at the hands of Lobengula's Matabele, by the middle eighteen seventies there was some stability and order in the life of the Bamangwato and the other Batswana tribes.

At this time, the Batswana had seen little of the white man. A few traders and hunters had penetrated into their territories, but, except at centres like Shoshong, no permanent relations had been established. The only Europeans who had lived among the Batswana were the missionaries, men like Moffat and Livingstone. Now began the exploration of Africa and the division of the continent among the European Powers. Embittered relations between the Boers from the Transvaal and the Batswana people (particularly the Barolong and the Batlhaping) prompted the latter to address appeals for assistance to the Cape authorities, while Khama, shortly after his accession, also asked for his country to be taken under British protection.

The British Government showed no anxiety to assume such new responsibilities, and it was not until 1884 that the missionary John Mackenzie was sent to Bechuanaland as Deputy Commissioner. Finally in 1885 Sir Charles Warren, with the concurrence of Khama and the other principal chiefs, proclaimed the whole of Bechuanaland to be under the protection of the Queen.

The part of the Territory to the south of the Molopo River, which included Mafeking, Vryburg and Kuruman, was constituted a Crown Colony, called British Bechuanaland, in 1885, and became part of the Cape Colony (now the Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa) in 1895. The northern part, the Bechuanaland Protectorate, remained under the protection of the British Crown. The colony and the protectorate were at first both administered from Vryburg; but on the incorporation of the Colony in the Cape, the headquarters of the protectorate were moved to Mafeking, the nearest convenient centre to the protectorate.

The British expansion northwards continued, under the powerful inspiration of Cecil John Rhodes, who had in 1889 obtained a Royal Charter for his British South Africa Company organised 'for the development of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the North'. With the occupation in 1895 of what is now Rhodesia, Rhodes's description of Botswana as the 'Suez Canal to the North' was seen to be an apt one.

In 1894 the British Government showed itself in favour of handing the administration of the protectorate to the British South Africa Company. Chiefs Khama of the Bamangwato, Bathoen of the Bangwaketse and Sebele of the Bakwena went to England to protest against the suggested transfer. A compromise was reached whereby the tribal lands would be demarcated, with the understanding that all other lands not specifically reserved would come under the control of the British South Africa Company and a strip of land on the eastern side of the protectorate would be ceded for the building of a railway. In the event, the diminution of Rhodes's influence which followed the failure of the Jameson Raid in December 1895, led to postponement and eventual abandonment of the plan to hand over the administration of the non-tribal lands of the protectorate to the British South Africa Company.

The South Africa Act of Union of 1909, which established the Union of South Africa, included provisions for the possible inclusion in South Africa of the three territories of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland, which were administered by the High Commissioner for South Africa.