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American principal, engaged not in the duties which are occupying the attention of most of the principals in our American schools, but in conducting a class. He is primarily a teacher, and continues to be a teacher throughout his life. He does not devote himself to the study of the problems of supervision as do trained principals in this country. The chief officer of the system corresponding to the American superintendent is often a man remote from the actual operations of the school. Furthermore, he is by no means as influential in the smaller municipalities as the school superintendent in our smaller towns. Indeed, supervision is very largely taken care of by the inspector of the board of education. The board of education has about 200 inspectors whose duty it is to visit schools all over England and make reports to the board about the doings of these schools. The board of education, through its power to give or withhold grants, exercises a very large influence upon the schools, and the inspectors of the board are virtually the superintendent of the schools of England. The local officers have in corresponding degree failed to learn the supervisory function which has been so fully cultivated in our country, where the independent districts are not supervised from any central point.

Given a central board of education supervising education from London and a body of teachers working in relatively little supervised schools, it seems natural to expect the rise of powerful organizations of teachers. The facts more than fulfill this expectation. There is no more powerful teachers' organization in the world than the National Union of Teachers. Out of a possible number of about, 200,000 teachers in England, more than 80,000 are registered annually as members of this teachers' union. The officers of this union are persons of large political importance, and they are in constant communication with the board of education and with the local authorities in the effort to protect the interests of individual teachers. In addition to this union of teachers, which is made up very largely of the elementary teachers, there are a great number of other organizations made up of teachers and head masters of various types, each undertaking to protect the interests of a special group of teachers.

The large number and importance of these teachers' organizations can in some measure be explained by the compactness of the population of England, but it must also be attributed in part to the fact. that the supervision of schools by the board of education as a central authority has aroused the local groups of teachers to perfect a kind of organization which shall care for their interests as distinguished from the central interests of the country as a whole.

Recently efforts have been made to bring together all of these different organizations under one supreme organization, which shall be

the center of the whole teaching profession of England. This central organization is known as the Teachers' Registration Council. Following the example of the barristers of England, the teachers are attempting, through this council, to create a list which shall become the official list of the teaching profession. Certain qualifications have been set up. Fortunately these are qualifications that call for professional training. It is expected that ultimately the professional list thus created will be accepted by the board of education very much as the barristers' list is accepted by the courts.

It may be said that the board of education undertook to organize such a list of professional teachers some years ago, but the list did not attract the teachers of the country and was ultimately abandoned. There is very large prospect that the new list created by the teachers' organizations will be successful and will ultimately be accepted as the official register of professional teachers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGLISH BOARD OF EDUCATION USED IN PREPARING THIS REPORT.

Elementary school teachers' superannuation pamphlet. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1912.

General report on the instruction and training of pupil-teachers, 1903-1907, with historical introduction. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 109 Fetter Lane, 1907. (Cd. 3582)

General reports of H. M. Inspectors on elementary schools and training colleges for the year 1902. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1903. (Cd. 1706)

How to become a teacher in a public elementary school. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1912.

Regulations for the preliminary education of elementary school teachers. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1913. (Cd. 7003)

Regulations for the training of teachers for elementary schools. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1913. (Cd. 6795)

Regulations for the training of teachers for secondary schools. London, Wyman & sons. ltd., 1913. (Cd. 4753)

Report of the Board of education for the year 1911-1912. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1913.

(Cd. 6707)

Statistics of public education in England and Wales. Part I. Educational statistics, 1911-12. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1913. (Cd. 6934)

Training colleges. Reports for the year 1900. London, Wyman & sons, ltd., 1901. (Cd. 567)

II.

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SCOTLAND.

In 1905, Scotland was training teachers very much as England does at the present time. There were in that year 2,718 uncertificated teachers out of a total teacher population of 20,685. Furthermore, 4,191 of this total were pupil-teachers or young persons in process of training who were at the same time giving time in the elementary schools to more or less responsible instructorial duties. The certificated teachers at this date were drawn from (a) examinations back of which there was no special institutional training; (b) university courses in academic subjects and in professional courses in education, all of which were tested at their conclusion by a certificating examination; and (c) training in certain training colleges provided chiefly by the churches. These training schools were under the close supervision of the education department of Scotland, though in 1901 the department had given up the practice of prescribing rigidly the courses to be pursued by students. From 1901 to 1905 these semiprivate training schools prepared and submitted for approval to the department syllabuses of their courses. In the preparation of courses by this method they enjoyed greater freedom than before, when the department prepared the syllabuses.

The system which we find in operation in 1905 was felt to be inadequate in all the respects in which the pupil-teacher system of England came to be regarded as inadequate. Furthermore, the semiprivate training colleges were unable to supply a sufficient number of teachers; hence there were a large number of uncertificated teachers employed in the schools. At this point the strong central educational department of Scotland took over the whole problem and inaugurated a new system. This new system has operated to eliminate the two classes of teachers so large in 1905, namely, the uncertificated teachers and the pupil-teachers, as will be seen by reference to the following table:

Classes of teachers employed, 1906-1912.

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The date set for the complete disappearance of the last two categories in Scotland is 1915. It should be noted that these statements include teachers of the higher schools as well as primary teachers, and that certificates are not granted to teachers in service unless they fulfill before 1915 through special courses of training the minimum requirements imposed on new teachers.

The new system adopted in 1905 went into effect July 7, 1906. In order to explain this system a typical case will be traced from the earliest schooling of the prospective teacher to complete certification. The typical case described will be that of a student who is preparing to become a primary-school teacher in the common schools. Like the other young children of the district, this teacher-to-be enters the infants' division of the so-called primary or elementary school at 5 years of age. He continues in the infants' division for two years. He then passes through the junior and senior divisions of the primary school in three and two years, respectively. At this point he is separated from many of his school fellows with whom he has spent the first seven years of his school life. Many of the pupils from the primary schools go at 12 years of age into schools where they receive a short course of training for trade or business life. Our teacher-tobe goes to a school in which he begins to look forward to the profession of teaching. He may at this point (12 years of age) transfer directly to a secondary school-that is, a school which prepares for the university, but which for his purposes is known as a "junior student center," and provides a five years' course-or he may go into what is known as an intermediate or higher grade school offering a three years' course (12 to 15 years). If he goes to the higher-grade school, which in most instances is a free school, his parents must undertake an obligation that he will continue his schooling for three years. If he goes to a secondary school, he may pay his fee, though in many and usually in all necessitous cases he receives a scholarship and an additional payment known as a maintenance allowance which provides him with books and other materials.

Whether in an intermediate school or a secondary school, our candidate now takes three years of general education like that taken by his fellows who are preparing for the other professions or for the more highly trained business positions. At the end of these three years, or when he is 15, he passes an examination conducted by the department's inspector in conjunction with the school authorities, and if successful receives what is known as the intermediate certificate. He may at this stage delay announcing his intention to teach and continue as a secondary-school pupil, coming into line for teacher's training at a later date. But if he receives the intermediate certificate, he may be appointed to a junior studentship. Appointment to this position is the first formal recognition of the fact

that he is to become a teacher. He now has his fees paid by the local authority and may receive an allowance in addition. The appointment to junior studentship is confirmed by the education department on the recommendation of the local secondary education committee. It is assumed that the candidate recommended by the secondary committee is a selected person, and the principle of selection is the teacher's opinion of the likelihood of his becoming an efficient teacher. He is known to be academically qualified by the fact that he has passed the examination for the intermediate certificate. He must pass a health test. He must show such characteristics of a personal sort as to promise well for his future work as a teacher. It is to be remembered that the state department is taking him over for public service and is assuming the charges for his training.

The practical fact is that the selective process is not as rigorous as it was intended to be in theory. Here, as in England, the supply of candidates is so small as to cause anxiety for the future supply of teachers, and the nominating committees are very careful not to turn anyone who is available away. A member of one of the important secondary committees told the writer that not a single man who applied last year was rejected and very few women.

The candidate being selected and having become a junior student is now admitted to a school designated as a junior student center. This center must be approved by the department of education. The report of 1913 shows 115 such centers distributed over the country. Some of the centers are in public schools of higher grade, some in higher-grade Roman Catholic schools, some in academies, and some in secondary schools. The course of study provided in such a junior student center must include English, history, one language other than English, mathematics (including arithmetic), experimental science and nature study, geography, drawing, music, physical exercises.1 It must further provide for each student additional instruction in suitable groups of subjects selected from those already enumerated, with which there may be conjoined, for the purposes of this selection, additional languages, and also such subjects as woodwork (for boys) or needlework and the domestic arts generally (for girls) or school gardening. There must also be provided "systematic training in the art of teaching each of the primaryschool subjects. This training may be given either in the approved school or in a purely primary school."

The practical training of the junior students is a subject of much discussion. There are some who regard it as too little and compare it unfavorably with the practical experience formerly gained by

1 Regulations for the preliminary education, training, and certification of teachers for various grades of schools, pp. 2-3.

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