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The dog, the first animal to be domesticated, is to be found among tribes so little developed as the Veddahs and the Fuegians. From a study of the Papago Indian tribes of Arizona and Mexico, McGee' is of the opinion that zoöculture, as he calls it, developed first in arid regions. In a desert intense struggle between species is not possible, as it is in moister regions where food is abundant. The necessities of its unfriendly environment put a premium upon coöperation among all kinds of plants and animals, including man, to ensure survival. Out of this interdependence there rose first an attitude of mutual toleration between species, and from this there gradually developed between man and the lower animals the more permanent and intimate relationship of domestication.

Shaler 2 said that civilized societies made use of the products of nearly one hundred animals and one thousand plants. But Brunhes 3 estimates that the number of plants which have economic importance do not exceed three hundred, - or one cultivated to five hundred natural species. He estimates the number of domesticated animals at about two hundred. At first, cultivation of grain and domestication of animals were primarily for the purpose of increasing the food supply, and stimulus was found in the gradual diminution of wild game. Probably the first domestic animal utilized for food was the dog which, though tamed for other purposes, served also as a sort of reserve food supply. Later the use of cattle and sheep provided in normal times a regular food supply. When domestication reached this stage man's mode of life changed entirely, as the hunt for wild animals gave way to the search for pasturage and water supply for domesticated animals.

Among advanced peoples both plant and animal products are utilized for many more purposes than for foods. Vegetable products, cultivated and wild, provide shelter, clothing, household utensils and decorations, heat, light, and medicine. Animal products have also been used for all these purposes, though they are most important for food and for manufactures, especially clothing. Textiles are made from wool, from the hair of goats and camels, and from the silk of the silk worm. Furs and skins of animals have always been utilized extensively for clothing and for utensils. And the possession of these products has been of social consequence, not merely because of the value of the products themselves, but because their use has stimulated the beginnings of manufacture and of trade, and the development of the fine arts.

1 American Anthropologist, Vol. 10, p. 285 2 Domesticated Animals, p. 219. 3 Human Geography, p. 252.

Important to society as has been the use of animal products, the very subjugation and utilization of animals has had a social significance sufficient to deserve separate consideration.

Results of the Domestication of Animals. Develops individuality. One of the most important effects of the utilization of animals lay in the stimulus it gave to the development of man's personality. Morgan attributes the capture and rearing of young animals in the first place to the merest freak of fancy; but this " freak of fancy” probably involved the pleasure which man gets from subjecting another animal to his will. To lord it over another living being, to make it do one's bidding, conduces to a feeling of self-importance and awakens consciousness of power and superiority. In another and more indirect way domestication of animals contributed to the recognition of the value of the individual. The domestication of cattle, introducing pastoral life and necessitating the search for grazing opportunities, resulted in the breaking up of the old communal order of society into family groups. As Fiske points out, only after the domestication of animals could a family by itself obtain the means of subsistence. But with the family group capable of separate existence, the centering of responsibility for the care of children on the parents instead of on the group, increased regard for children and near relatives; and, within the small group at least, raised to a higher level the estimate of the value of human life. To be sure, owing to the conditions of pastoral life, the male head of the family was of paramount importance, so that male children were more highly valued than were female; but development of personality in one part of society only is of course preferable to having the whole group remain on the same low level of consciousness.

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A further stimulus to the growth of self-consciousness was the development of private property which originated in ownership of domestic animals. Wherever property begins to be accumulated it becomes identified with the owner — becomes, indeed, a part of his personality. The value of the individual is no longer measured by personal traits alone; his importance, and especially his consciousness of his importance, is derived largely from the things which he possesses. Even civilized man finds it difficult to estimate the true value of the individual apart from his possessions.

Increases sympathy. Another psychological result of the domestication of animals was the development of man's sympathy, owing partly to his intimate association with them and partly to the constant care they needed. Shaler believes that rural populations are kinder than urban; and he attributes the difference to the education they have had in the care of domestic animals. The cruelty which characterized the American Indians was probably due largely to the absence of domestic animals among them. For some reason or other the dependence of an animal seems often to arouse in mankind more sympathy even than the dependence of his own species. The dog and the horse have been particularly valuable in developing social sentiments in man. The dog is the most affectionate of all animals; is probably the only animal in fact which will follow his master from pure attachment. From the earliest times man has been associated more intimately with the dog than with any other animal, and the dog's quality of devotion has stimulated similar traits in his master. The horse on the other hand is not particularly affectionate, but he requires constant and intelligent care; and this necessity for care has stimulated sentiments of responsibility as well as of sympathy in his owners. All animals which have been used for household pets have served the same purpose.

Afects social customs. The use of animals in increasing the food supply, and in raising the estimate of the value of human life, produced interesting social changes in some of the primitive tribes by hastening the decline of cannibalism and causing the substitution of animal for human sacrifices. Any increase in the food supply, whether animal or vegetable, not only made cannibalism less urgent but permitted also the retention of captives as slaves. Human sacrifice is closely connected with cannibalism; in fact, Fiske thinks that human sacrifice probably originated from cannibalism. Where the two exist sometimes a part of the victim is sacrificed and a part is eaten. The increased value attached to human beings and the presence of valuable animals suggest the possibility of substituting the latter for the former. The story of Abraham's call to sacrifice his son Isaac illustrates the general experience of peoples entering upon the pastoral stage of existence. Among such a people a son, especially the first born, is the most valued of all possessions. At the moment of sacrifice Abraham was told that a ram would be just as acceptable; and usually pastoral peoples have become inspired with the idea that animal could be substituted for human sacrifice.

The social effects of domestic animals are well illustrated when the Aztec and Quichuan civilizations are compared. The Aztecs, who had no domestic animals of the nobler sort, lived in communal dwellings, – that is, the families were not wholly differentiated, — and human sacrifice, both of their own members and of prisoners of war, was common. Cannibalism was also indulged in. On the other hand the Quichuans, who had domesticated the llama, a valuable animal, used it for sacrifice. They did not practise cannibalism, and their family life attained a high stage of development. Again, one of the potent causes for the greater advancement of early civilizations in Asia and in Europe over those in America, was doubtless the presence in the old world of many domesticable animals, and to their scarcity in the new world. The Aryan and Semitic peoples who developed such high civilizations were also those who made the greatest use of domestic animals.

The Uses of Animals. For draft purposes and transportation. The economic utilization of animals, besides having a share in developing the individual, has increased production and altered the economic organization. The employment of animals for draft purposes practically revolutionized agriculture. A people can by manual labor produce sufficient food for their

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own support; but they cannot obtain any considerable surplus for commerce without animal power for ploughing and transportation. Cattle were first used extensively for farm labor, as they were more easily raised than horses, and the ox is a powerful animal; but cattle are slow, and the cloven hoof is weak, consequently the need for greater efficiency in farming finally forced the substitution of the swifter though more expensive horse for horned animals.

The use of animals as beasts of burden, and as means of transportation, served to develop trade and intercourse during the long period before the invention of steam power. Man is too slow to travel far on foot and too weak to carry heavy burdens, and therefore commerce over considerable distances would have remained small had it not been for the help of strong animals. In transportation again the horse has been of general use, as it combines strength with swiftness and is of a size to be easily managed. In arid regions, however, the camel has been particularly well adapted for transportation purposes. The elephant is too large and unwieldly to be used in many ways, but it is practically the only animal that can be used for mechanical work. It is extremely intelligent and uses its trunk almost like a hand, hence it can be taught to pile timbers and to move heavy loads without mechanical assistance. The intelligence of elephants is all the more remarkable because practically all those in use were captured from the wilds. They breed so slowly that they have not been subjected to the selective process in domestication.

For military purposes. The employment of animals in warfare has had a notable effect upon history, though their use in war has been of far less consequence than their use in the peaceful arts. The utilization of the horse and the perfection of horsemanship caused cavalry to develop in Asia, while infantry was being perfected in Europe. Cavalry formations, particularly before the invention of gunpowder, were exceedingly effective and often turned the tide of battle in favor of the side possessing horses. In addition to the effectiveness of cavalry in breaking up infantry formations, the swiftness of the horse gave rapid means either of pursuit or of flight. The

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