tive, enterprise, and ambition to achieve. Later they manifest themselves perhaps in greater curiosity and interest in experiment, and in the desire for new experiences. On the other hand the life of the female is more absorbed with racial interests. Instincts of mating and of motherhood are fundamental with her. And these instincts develop in her the nursing quality to a marked degree, making her more sympathetic and quicker in emotional response. She also exhibits greater self-sacrifice, and is more conscientious, patient, and sentimental.

The results of the various experiments and observations on sex differences are not easy to evaluate, and it is particularly difficult to distinguish original from acquired characteristics. It seems probable that the differences most generally agreed upon are usually of biological origin, and that these differences are in turn likely to be intensified by the diversity of interests arising in the lives of the two sexes particularly after marriage. It is quite possible that the kinds of differentiations usually tested in laboratories may reveal only a minimum of differences among the subjects tested, because these are usually groups of young men and women who have been undergoing identical training in coeducational institutions. There seems to be no particular point in trying to minimize sex differences by tracing them to the greater physical strength of the male. If greater strength is a permanent characteristic of the male, as it probably is, then the various traits derivable from it are permanent and will be of as much significance in economic life as those derived from any other source. Society at the present time is going through a period of readjustment with regard to sex activities; and the tendency is to make little of sex differences, perhaps with the idea of helping to remove prejudice against the wider activities of women. The reaction against the old idea of feminine inferiority may have carried us too far towards the idea of similarity or identity of traits between the sexes. Whatever the pronouncement of the laboratories may be the final decision concerning the individual characters and aptitudes of the sexes will be made through the struggles and exactions of economic life. And the probability is that sex differences will prove to be sufficiently well defined to lead to a clearly marked division of labor in industry.

The Quantitative Theory of Sex. The present tendency among biologists is to regard sex as a quantitative as well as a qualitative distinction. Sex is now described as the expression of differences in metabolism, and these differences may be of varying degrees. At the extremes in the scale of metabolism are to be found individuals showing the most marked manifestations of masculine and feminine qualities. Between these extremes are all grades of sex manifestations, - males with various femi

, nine characteristics on the one side, and females with masculine qualities on the other; and on the dividing line appears what has recently been called an “intermediate sex,” or, more technically, intersexes, and these are much more common than is generally supposed. This biological theory of degrees of sex quality is in close accord with the results of psychological tests.

If curves showing sex characteristics are plotted they are found to overlap to a marked degree. The interpretation is that individual differences within either sex are much greater than is the differference between the mode or average of the two sexes. Possibly if tests could be made on selected individuals showing extremes of metabolism, the result would be more instructive in revealing true sex differences than tests on groups of the sexes taken at random without reference to the degree of metabolism which they represent. The most striking result of the psychological tests thus far made is to prove the continuity of traits from one extreme of sex to the other extreme, and not to prove that no considerable difference exists between the most completely differentiated specimens of the sexes.

Evidences of similarity of traits in the two sexes have been received with satisfaction by the feminists as a vindication of their demand for freedom and independence; but similarity in the sexes is rather to be regretted than otherwise. Women possessing masculine traits may be successful in a wider variety of occupations; but extremes of metabolism, which mean complete differentiation of sex, lead to greater sexual attraction, Although economic requirements may be satisfied by similarity of traits and independence of the sexes, racial requirements are

1 See Thorndike, Individuality.

best met by complementary traits and interdependence of the sexes. And economic adaptations are temporary while racial needs are permanent. Imperfect differentiation of sex is a social misfortune, and not an end to strive after.

Social Aptitudes of the Sexes. The physical and mental characteristics of the two sexes are sufficiently well differentiated to enable us to make tentative deductions concerning their relative aptitudes for different departments of social life. The strength of the male, his superior ambition, aggressiveness, and desire for mastery, make him the more active agent in the conquest of nature and the natural leader in the organization and conduct of economic life. On the other hand the physiological specialization of the female for child-bearing necessarily imposes upon her the burden of the early care of the young. And her greater patience, sympathy, and affectability indicate that she is also better endowed mentally to care for dependents. The female has stronger racial instincts than the male, and when she follows these instincts she will necessarily be precluded from a degree of activity in economic life equal to that of the male. The female may be looked upon as a sort of reserve force in society for the benefit of the race. Inasmuch as man is the economic agent, the benefit which society derives from his activity is more immediate and evident. The advantage derived from the special contribution of the female is realized only in the future, manifesting itself from generation to generation. But, inasmuch as the future is ordinarily undervalued as compared with the present, the female has never been so highly prized for herself and for her labors as has the male. As peoples become more easily able to satisfy present wants, they give more consideration to the future and to the welfare of coming generations; and in so doing they tend to elevate the position of woman and to exalt the value of her work.

As a general principle it is not economical to employ female energy in the work of adaptation to the environment, because, if so used, it may be to the detriment of the coming generation. However, there are certain emergencies in which female energy may be directed into economic lines with profit to society. In case of extreme poverty, or in periods of great stress or danger, all available energy should naturally be utilized. To be sure such expenditure of the entire social energy may still be detrimental to the rising generation, but the alternative of trying to conserve female energy would result in increased poverty and so would be even more injurious to the young. The fact is that a society situated in a poor environment cannot adequately care either for the present or for the future generation. The problem which every society is continually called upon to solve is that of the relative importance of present as compared with future needs, the problem of spending versus saving; but for the poor society the solution unquestionably demands an excess of present expenditure for the best interests of old and young alike.

Another situation which permits the expenditure of female energy for immediate needs is found where any kind of social readjustment results in a lower rate of increase in the population. If the birth rate is lowered some of the energy designed for reproduction is released, and such energy instead of being wasted may properly be employed for immediate needs. In this way readjustment is more speedily accomplished.

This fundamental specialization of the sexes, the one for economic and the other for racial needs, is obvious; but the existence of minor differences in sex characteristics is less evident, both as regards degree and origin of differentiation. Whether apparent variations are derived from physical organization or result from mode of life remains an open question. For example, in social life in the narrow meaning of the term women seem to feel more keenly than men the competition of individuals for position and rank. The underlying motive for such competition is the desire for social recognition and for social supremacy; and the means to the end are found in numberless forms of rivalry, such as competition in dress, correctness in ceremonials, and elaborateness of entertainment. The greater interest of women in social life may no doubt be traceable partly to mental characteristics, but probably it results chiefly from her mode of life. Men find scope for their competitive instincts in economic life and women seek expression for the same instincts in social life.

Sex Differences in Cultural Activities. On the intellectual and cultural sides of life differences of interests and aptitudes will probably always exist. Women show a higher degree of appreciation of art in its various forms than do men, though this superiority does not extend to artistic achievement, for thus far men have shown greater originality and creative ability in practically all departments of art. But on the average women can be relied upon to demand more beauty in their immediate surroundings. Superiority in artistic appreciation is due partly to mental traits, for the senses are usually slightly keener in women, and the emotional nature to which art makes its appeal is on the average more highly developed in them. But in addition to intellectual differences, mode of life has had much effect on the relative strength of the artistic interests. The average man who spends his days in factory or workshop would be almost certain to have his senses dulled to the appeal of art, while women who spend more time at home in residential districts would at least have the opportunity to keep alert to artistic impressions.

Women also show a stronger religious inclination than men, partly for the same reason that they possess keener artistic appreciation. Their emotional nature finds an outlet in religion as well as in art. But the smaller degree of independence and self-assertiveness in the female causes her, to a greater extent than the male, to seek support and consolation in religious belief. Possessed of a more conservative type of mind, women also chafe less at unchanging doctrines.

On the other hand scientific knowledge and achievements offer stronger appeals to men. Here again the difference is due partly to mental traits. Man's inclination for experimentation, his ingenuity, and mechanical ability, would naturally arouse his interest in positive knowledge and probably make him more proficient in research. But any special technical aptitude which he may possess has been strongly supplemented by particular masculine interests. Economic need has always acted as the strongest incentive to the pursuit of scientific knowledge, and consequently it has been of immediate advantage to the male to cultivate the sciences. His special interests have probably