they are in the agricultural stage of economy; while most, though not all, of the polyandrous peoples of the other type are in the pastoral stage. Some of the marriage customs of the Nairs would seem to indicate that their form of marital relations represented a minor variation rather than an important form of family life. At any rate the causes are obscure and a discussion of them would be purely speculative.

In this analysis of the causes underlying the forms of the family, the broad influences only are presented. In case of particular peoples it will be found that specific marriage forms and customs are determined by a complex of forces, and to understand them in detail would require intensive study of their histories.

On polygyny. The causes of polygyny have been studied in greater detail than the causes of the other forms of the marital relation; and here again Westermarck's conclusions have been generally copied by later writers. Among the causes to which the practice of polygyny is attributed, one of the most prominent is an excess of females, which results in most cases from warfare, both because men are killed and women are captured, although in a few cases the excess comes from the higher death rate of men in dangerous occupations, and a temporary excess, sufficient to affect family relations, arises from the absence of men on long journeys. Polygyny is said to result also from the im

. position of customs, or tabus, requiring the separation of husband and wife at stated intervals and sometimes for long periods of time. Other causes given are the attraction of female youth and beauty for man, his taste for variety, his desire for offspring, and finally his struggle for power, wealth, and authority.

These conditions, mentioned by Westermarck, may be classed among the secondary or contributing causes of polygyny, but as primary causes they can be supported neither by facts nor by logic. Even the facts to be gleaned from Westermarck's comprehensive review of the forms of marriage corroborate this view. In his discussion of the excess of females he refers to 28 places or peoples where females noticeably preponderate; but, notwithstanding the widespread existence of polygyny as a marriage system, he reports that it is practised in only 10 out of these

28 districts. Next, in regard to the influence of customs tending to separate husband and wife, Westermarck mentions 25 instances of peoples having such customs and of these 12 are polygynous and 13 are not. As for preference for female youth and beauty, that is so universal that societies cannot be divided on that point; yet Westermarck mentions 22 cases of primitive peoples in which women show a particularly marked tendency to lose their beauty at an early age; and of these 9 are polygynous and 13 are not. The desire for variety and the desire for offspring are mentioned only in connection with polygynous peoples; but it is interesting to note that desire for offspring is cited as the immediate cause of a plurality of wives in 12 cases only.

From these actual instances it does not appear that Westermarck's causes are either fundamental or even very forcible in producing the polygynous form of marriage, or else the alleged cause and effect would vary more consistently. Not only does polygyny appear in less than half of the societies containing the conditions supposed to produce it, but the specific causes account for only about 43 out of 184 cases of polygyny cited by Westermarck.

If these causes are tested by deductive reasoning they receive no better support. In fact an analysis of them seems to show that a misconception exists with regard to the real nature of the problem. The problem is to ascertain the cause of the polygynous system, but the causes given by Westermarck are merely individual reasons for taking a plurality of wives under a social system permitting polygyny. The system itself is assumed, not explained. Most of the factors enumerated are present in modern societies; in fact the individual desires mentioned are common characteristics of men in all stages of culture, yet that fact has not prevented the realization of the monogamic system. If man's preference for youth and beauty were a fundamental cause of polygyny, then polygyny would pass only when men showed a partiality for old age and ugliness. The desire for offspring varies considerably, to be sure, but the variations are chiefly individual. They show no general rhythm corresponding to changes in the type of family. And as for the struggle for

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wealth, power, and authority, - when, it may be asked, have men ceased to desire them? The monogamic system could not have resulted from a change in man's attitude towards wealth and position. Under the system of polygyny men merely found expression for their desires in a plurality of wives; and after that system passed away these desires were directed into other channels.

The fundamental cause of the transition from the proprietary stage of the family has already been traced to the development of self-consciousness in the male and the resulting subordination of the female to the level of property. The immediate cause of polygyny, as distinct from polyandry, is again to be found in the accumulation and ownership of wealth. In more favorable environments where wealth increases rapidly, it is possible for the individual to acquire a considerable surplus. Then the male, who owns the wealth, may have one wife or many, according to his resources and the number of women available. In some cases the situation is altered by the fact that part of the work is performed by women, and they are therefore a source rather than a sign of wealth. In such cases women favor the polygynous system because it lightens the burden of their work. The man with only one wife is held in contempt.

As a social cause of polygyny Westermarck suggests the differentiation of society into classes; and class distinctions are usually closely connected with the accumulation of wealth. The two are not always identical, however, and frequently the accumulation of wealth seems to be the direct determining factor. Pastoral peoples practise polygyny when no marked class distinctions have arisen.

In addition to the fact of the increase of wealth, its disposal through inheritance bas tended to narrow sex relations, individual inheritance of property requiring a form of marriage which ensures legitimacy. And finally, the individual causes of polygyny enumerated by Westermarck may be added here in order that the system may be fully explained. Such individual characteristics must be assumed if the polygynous system is to develop into an enduring system. Furthermore, these characteristics are particularly important in causing polygyny to persist in advanced societies which are otherwise prepared for the complete monogamic system.

On monogamy. Voluntary monogamy, the third type of marriage, is primarily dependent, as has already been pointed out, on further development of personality, particularly in the female. The chief effect of economic conditions has been in helping indirectly to improve the position of women and to increase the feeling of equality between the sexes. As advanced societies free themselves more and more from the direct influence of the environment, so the advanced forms of the family are freer from the direct influence of economic conditions than are the primitive forms.

A determining influence in the replacement of polygyny by an early and imperfect form of monogamy was the desire to iconcentrate property in the hands of fewer heirs. This hastened recognition of one wife only as the legal wife and of her children as the only legitimate heirs. Chief among the indirect influences are those which have helped to raise the position of woman. The decline of wars of extermination, and of the plunder and rapine following such warfare, have removed the degrading conception of woman as mere booty, the property of the strong. The increased economic and social activities of woman, made possible by the modern industrial system with its complicated forms of division of labor, have been instrumental in winning for her an equality of rights and privileges which have greatly increased her independence and influence. And in the modern complex organization of society, the intimate association of the sexes on terms of increasing equality has helped to develop woman's personality and to hasten the recognition of virtual equality of the sexes. Such an improvement in the position of women is an essential condition to the attainment of the highest form of monogamy.

Two Forms of Monogamy. Monogamy shows such variations that Starcke has distinguished two forms, the one to be found in Latin countries and the other in Anglo-Saxon countries. The first is the juridical or institutional form in which the social importance of the organization itself is emphasized; and the other is the individual form in which personal rights and privileges are preëminent. While these two forms originate merely from a difference in emphasis placed upon two essential phases of the marriage relationship, they develop divergent tendencies of considerable significance. When the institutional side of the family is over-emphasized, the personal preferences of the contracting parties receive little consideration. Marriages are usually arranged by parents with reference to the social desirability of the unions. Marriage is looked upon as permanent, so divorce is infrequent. And extra-marital relations are more likely to be condoned in order that the organization may be kept intact. When the individual side of the marriage relation is over-emphasized, personal preferences and personal happiness receive first consideration. The choice of partners is left to the parties concerned. There are few restrictions on marriage; and it is often entered into with little forethought or seriousness of purpose. Divorce is tolerated if the parties prove to be illmated, the happiness of the individuals concerned rather than the social welfare being the primary consideration.

Both these forms of monogamy contain desirable and undesirable elements, so that neither can be wholly approved nor wholly condemned. The ideal form would seem to be some sort of a compromise between them, though the monogamic family will always show minor variations according to the character of a people and its social institutions. The present trend towards extreme individualism has helped to strengthen the individualistic attitude towards the family, sometimes causing extreme manifestations of that form to appear in Anglo-Saxon countries, and even affecting the stability of the institutional form in Latin countries.

Relative Advantages of the Different Forms of the Family. Although certain advantages in all the marriage relations have been touched upon in connection with the discussion of causes, a review and comparison of their relative merits will bring out more clearly the superiority of the monogamic form and will indicate also the characteristics valuable to retain in any future modifications of the family relationship.

In passing judgment on the indefinite forms of the family relationship, it should be remembered that this type represents