and, consequently, labor could be largely utilized in the production of luxuries. An Athenian citizen, except when needed for the defence of the city or the performance of simple political duties, was free to devote himself to intellectual pursuits and to pleasure. Moreover, the patriotism of the Greeks, their religious beliefs, and the uncertainty of their relations with their neighbors, were all influences tending to quicken the emotions. The character of their religious beliefs deserves particular mention. Religion is always an important source of artistic inspiration and it was exceptionally influential in Greece because it was so purely anthropomorphic. The religious factor, therefore, stimulated the production of the human form in its perfection, and religious conceptions of Athene, Aphrodite, and Apollo, were responsible for some of the greatest of the Greek productions. The advantage which the art of Greece derived from her religion may best be realized by comparing her idealization of gods and goddesses with the grotesque composite productions which represented the more confused religious conceptions of other ancient countries, such as Egypt, Assyria, and Phoenicia.

Little is known of the conditions under which art appeared in Egypt; but a point of interest concerning early art there is that, after it had reached a high stage of perfection, it became so hampered by conventionalities imposed upon it by the priestly class that development almost entirely ceased. Both Egypt and France illustrate in different ways the evils of restriction on expression.

Political Influences. In addition to economic status, other social conditions have a minor influence on art. War does not in itself necessarily interfere with the production of art; on the contrary it may excite the emotions and indirectly stimulate artistic expression. When, however, war is long continued, so that it is exhausting to economic resources, it does interfere seriously with artistic production.

Nor does art depend directly at least upon political systems. It develops under an autocratic as well as under a democratic régime. In fact where an absolute ruler is favorable to art and becomes its patron, art may rise more rapidly in an autocratic than in a democratic society where the public must serve as

patron, for it takes much longer to develop a cultured taste in a whole people, or even in a whole class, than it does in a single sovereign. On the other hand, the period of artistic activity is likely to be shorter and the decline more rapid under autocratic than under democratic conditions; for in the former case the patronage of art may suddenly cease with the death of a monarch, while in the latter case, if a whole people have acquired artistic taste, the demand will continue as long as the society remains in a healthy condition. In democratic Athens, where conditions were generally favorable, art of the highest order lasted for at least three centuries and then the decline was gradual. On the other hand, under the absolute monarchies of France and Spain artistic excellence was of short duration and decline was rapid.

To summarize the environmental influences on art, it appears that artistic activity depends directly on the existence of strong emotions, and upon freedom in their expression; and that, therefore, it is likely to thrive in warm climates and in societies which have acquired sufficient wealth so that tastes may be cultivated and artists may be educated. Political conditions seem to influence art only indirectly, in so far as they affect freedom of expression or, in troublous times, excite the emotions. Social forces condition the existence or non-existence of art, while physical forces determine the direction and possibly the intensity of artistic activity.

Influence of Education. The general physical and social conditions which favor artistic development have now been reviewed, and it remains to consider the conditions favorable to the appearance of artists. These are partly educational, and this type is particularly apparent in the present period. Although the past century has shown a marked increase in the production of wealth, it has not been distinguished for artistic activity, and the causes are partially within our power to control. Art, depending as it does upon an active emotional life, does not easily develop in an age preeminently scientific where cultivation of the emotions is neglected. Psychology and education have had little concern for the emotional side of the mind. The tendency has been either to let the feelings run riot without systematic training, or to attempt to suppress them by a relative

over-development of the intellect. The present emphasis on the exact sciences in our system of education will in time give place to a better balanced schedule, the emotions will be more carefully studied and developed, and the arts will again hold a prominent position.

Another defect in our system of education is already being remedied. Hitherto the passive side of education, absorption of knowledge, has been emphasized; while the active side of application and expression of knowledge absorbed has been neglected. Now art is expression, and its production therefore requires an active rather than a passive system of training. The same principle applies to appreciation as well as to production of artistic products. It is the individual who can express himself who can appreciate also the finer expressions of others.

Influence of Machinery. Progress in art has been retarded also by the general use of machinery. The influence of machinery is not of course wholly deleterious because it has multiplied and cheapened reproductions of art products, thereby stimulating interest in and assisting the study of art. But machinery has interfered with the direct expression of the individual, turning lower-grade workers into automatons, and making of higher-grade workers mechanicians instead of artisans. The result has been to repress artistic appreciation and decrease the proportion of artistic products. This has been disastrous because people have become accustomed to ugly or indifferent objects and have ceased to demand beautiful ones. Little opportunity has been left for the development of discriminating taste. A good illustration may be drawn from the history of furniture. As long as furniture was made by hand, it passed through the normal processes of artistic development. In England, from the early products, plain and severe, the styles showed steady improvement until their artistic culmination at the end of the 18th century, when artists and architects of ability designed furniture and superintended its construction. In the early part of the 19th century, furniture, though still meritorious, was beginning to show an over-developed flamboyant tendency in style indicating a decline, and after the introduction of machinery scarcely any beautiful furniture was produced. The styles be

came positively ugly until the Arts and Crafts Movement by
introducing simplicity in design produced furniture which, if it
had little positive beauty, possessed the negative value of being
unobjectionable. Under the influence of machine-made products
the demand for the beautiful furniture of the 18th century died
out, and the recent renewed interest in it seems often to be a
demand for antiques rather than for beautiful styles.

The influence of machinery has been detrimental to the taste
of the consumer because it has interfered with the development
of household art, but it has also been injurious to the worker.
Under the old system of hand work the artisan put his person-
ality into his work and obtained pleasure as well as development
from the sense of creation. Under the present system the
machine comes between the worker and his work. He cannot
express himself directly and therefore lacks the interest and the
growth which should accompany production. As William Morris
says; 1 “ To give people pleasure in the things they must per-
force use, that is the one great office of decoration; to give
people pleasure in the things they must perforce make, that is
the other use of it."

These observations should not be understood in any way to
be a plea for the abolition of machinery, but only for a more
rational use of it. Machinery should be used whenever it can
do the work better than the artisan, and so far as possible it
should be made to perform disagreeable work. Such a program
would call for the extension of machinery in many lines. On
the other hand, art should be applied to that part of the environ-
ment which is of permanence and which continually influences
personality. Such an ideal would require a redistribution of
the field of production between machinery and the artist, or
artisan, and is not possible of immediate realization. Machinery
means more and cheaper articles, and human welfare often
demands economy. On the other hand, it cannot too often be
repeated that life does not consist in an abundance of things.
Simplification of life with enrichment of aesthetic standards
would promote well-being.
Conclusion. In this chapter the purpose and influence of

art have been reviewed together with the conditions under which art is likely to flourish. These conditions include the nature of the physical environment, the stage of economic development, and educational influences, only part of which are susceptible of modification. The physical environment is fixed, and economic conditions change slowly; the educational factors alone are possible of direction towards a given end. Educational influences however may be used for two purposes, for the development of artists, and for the improvement of the taste of the people. The development of artists is the simpler problem for, although talent cannot be produced at will, the talent available can be developed through the medium of proper schools and equipment; and in any healthy society artistic products are likely to respond to the demand. The stimulation of an effective demand for art is therefore the primary requirement of any people who seek to develop this phase of social life. And especially is this true of a democracy where the people as a whole must become discriminating critics and intelligent patrons of the fine arts, if these are to rest upon an enduring basis. The best method of obtaining this end is by a gradual improvement of the surroundings, first in the sphere of civic art, and next in the household.

The result of developing the aesthetic side of life would be farreaching, for it would supply a cultural element which in modern societies is noticeably lacking and which would help to perfect individual character and to complete social life. It would enhance the enduring enjoyments of life and in this way counteract some of the repressive effects of factory and workshop, and would emphasize by contrast the sordidness of the interminable struggle for material gain. Its cultural effects would supplement the intellectual activities and the achievements of modern society, which are altogether too strongly turned in the direction of the practical and the material. And finally, it would improve the relationship of men to one another by decreasing egotism and by softening the uncompromising struggle for personal advantage. It would elevate personal standards and would improve moral relationships.