quated, but they formed the solid ground upon which the chronology and history of ancient Egypt have been built up. His three years' stay in the Nile Valley at the head of a commission of German scientists (1842-45) produced the gigantic 'Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien (12 vols., Berlin 1849-59), in which all the historical texts known at the time were reproduced by the skilful hand of Weidenbach. Bunsen popularized the ideas of Lepsius in his Ägyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte (Hamburg 1849); Brugsch applied himself to the demotic texts ('Scriptura Aegyptorium demotica,' Berlin 1848); Grammaire démotique' (ib. 1885). While things went thus in Germany, Emmanuel de Rougé commenced his labors in France with his 'Examen critique de l'ouvrage de M. le Chevalier de Bunsen,' in which the merits of Bunsen's and Lepsius' work were fully recognized, while their errors and fallacious hypotheses were pointed out with a vigor of method and a certainty which placed the young author at the head of Egyptologists. He remodeled the grammar in his 'Chrestomathie Egyptienne (Paris 1867-76), he called back to life the first dynasties in 'Recherches sur les monuments qu'on peut attribuer aux six premières dynasties de Manithon' (ib. 1866), and in his pamphlets, he was the first who really translated whole Egyptian books and inscriptions, both hieroglyphic and hieratic. He gave a new impulse to the study not only in France, where Chabas, Deveria, Pierret and Maspero followed him, but also in England, where his influence was felt by Birch, Hincks, Renouf, Le Page and in Germany, where Brugsch, Dümichen and Ebers seconded the efforts of Lepsius. Brugsch left many monumental works, the great faults of which are lost in greater merits. With the exception of Weidemann the more recent German school inclines more and more to grammars and philology under the lead of Adolf Erman. The French school, while not neglecting philology, has directed much of its strength toward history and archæology. Young Egyptologists are sent every year to Egypt to excavate, draw, copy and publish the monuments. They are helped in the work of finding and preserving the remains of antiquity by an Anglo-American society, the Egypt Exploration Fund, the first secretary and real promoter of which was Amelia B. Edwards (1882-92). In 1883 they sent out their first agent, E. Naville of Geneva, and he cleared the site of Pithom in the land of Goshen. Since then Naville, Flinders Petrie, Griffith, Gardner and Newberry have been at work. Naucratis has come to light, Tanis and Bubastis, the Pyramids of the Fayum, the tombs of Beni-Hasan and El-Amarna have yielded unexpected treasures of archæological and historical lore. The last few years have seen wonderful discoveries in Egypt, for the tombs of the kings of Abydos have been opened and the treasures which have been found bring us face to face with archaic history. Among the remarkable finds were a carved slate slab showing King Nar-mer smiting his enemy, an ebony table, a bar of gold, gold jewelry, including bracelets, and a royal sceptre. The oldest group of jewelry in the world is undoubtedly the four bracelets of the queen of King Zer or Teta (4366 B.C.), which was discovered

with a portion of the mummy in a hole in a wall. This is 1,500 years earlier than any other jewelry thus far identified. The bracelets show a wonderful perfection in the soldering of gold. They also show the turning point in the development of Egyptian art; the finest bracelets are formed of alternate plaques of gold and turquoise, each surmounted with a royal hawk. The turquoise hawks are clumsy, of a more archaic form than those on the gold pieces.

An American archæologist, Theodore M. Davies, has made one of the most interesting discoveries of recent years in excavating the tomb of Thothmes IV of the 18th dynasty. The tomb contained the chariot in which he rode at Thebes. Like other royal tombs it consisted of a gallery cut in the heart of the mountain. After sloping downward for a considerable distance it is interrupted by a deep square well; on one of the walls is a band of paintings. On the farther side of the wall the passage turns back, and finally opens into a large chamber, at the extreme end of which is a magnificent sarcophagus of granite covered with texts from "The Book of the Dead." On either side are smaller chambers; the floor of one of them was covered with the offerings made to the dead king, consisting of mummified loins of beef, legs of mutton and trussed ducks and geese. Clay seals with the name of the Pharaoh had been attached to the doors of the chambers, and it is stated the raised portions of the seals had been smeared with blue ink before being pressed on the clay. A great many of the objects in the tomb of Thothmes were found to be broken, and this was explained by a hieroglyphic inscription on one of the paintings which adorn the walls of the vestibule to the chamber in which the sarcophagus was found. That inscription states that the tomb was plundered by robbers, but that it had been restored as far as possible to its original condition by Hor-em-heb, the reigning Pharaoh. The floor was covered with vases, dishes, symbols of life and other objects in blue faience. Unfortunately, nearly all of them had been wantonly broken, though in some cases the breakage had been repaired in the time of Hotem-heb. Equally interesting is a piece of textile fabric into which hieroglyphic characters of different colors have been woven with such wonderful skill as to present the appearance of painting on linen. The chariot is one of the finest specimens of art that have come down to us from antiquity. Along with the chariot was found the leather gauntlet with which the king protected his hand and wrist when using the bow or reins.

Later excavations at Abydos have brought to light the royal tomb of Menes, of the first dynasty, in which was found a large globular vase of green glaze, with Menes' name inlaid in purple. Thus polychrome glazing is taken back thousands of years before it was previously known to exist. There are also several pieces of delicately carved ivory of that age. One represents the figure of an aged king, which, for subtlety of character, stands in the first rank of such work, and ranks with the finest work of Greece and Italy. A camel's head modeled in pottery takes back its relation to Egypt some 4,000 years. Hitherto no trace of the camel had appeared before Greek times. The ivory carv

ing of a bear also extends the fauna of early Egypt.

Records begin to appear with the 3d dynasty of Manetho. The Sphinx of Ghizeh is certainly older, but being uninscribed, it is not known to which king or dynasty it belongs. A few. stele bear the name of Sondon (2d dynasty), and the step pyramid of Sakkarh purports to be the tomb of Tosiri (2d dynasty). These, however, are isolated instances and an unbroken line of monuments only begins under Snofroni, the last Pharaoh of the 3d dynasty, about (4300 B.C.). From his time to the death of Pepi II (about 3800 B.C.) the necropolis of Ghizeh, Sakkarh, Dashour and Midoum, tombs of feudal families at Zawret-el-Maietin, at Sheik-said, the rock graffiti of Wadi-Magharah in the Sinaitic peninsula, furnish material enough to trace the succession of the kings and call back to life the whole civilization of those primæval ages. The series breaks off after Pepi II, but a few scarabs and other objects are the only records we possess of the Heracleopolitan house. With the 11th dynasty the monuments came to light again in great numbers and are dispersed all over the Nile Valley, in the grottoes of Beni-Hasan, Bersheh, Siut, Assouan, in the tombs of Thebes and Abydos, in the temples of Nubia and in the Delta cities, in the Fayum pyramids and the inscriptions of Sinai. There are many inscriptions and statues of the 13th and 14th dynasties, and the area of ground they cover from the fourth cataract to the sea shows the extent of the Egypt of that day. The invasion of the Hyksos suspended for at least 400 years the production of monuments (about 2100 B.C.), and nothing remains of their kings except a few names scratched on the statues of the old Pharaohs. Egypt revived after their expulsion and the three Theban dynasties of the New Empire (1750-1100 B.C.) enriched by the spoils of Asia and of Ethiopia, covered the banks of the Nile with temples and palaces, the remains of which are counted today in hundreds. The Roman Cæsars continued the constructions and the reigns of the Flavians and Antonines are recorded by many monuments. The impulse died out about 250 A.D.; Philippus is the last emperor whose name is engraved officially in the hieroglyphic character. The English have recognized French intervention in the direction of the Cairo Museum which has a right to one-half of all discoveries of antiquities, etc., made in Egypt. Gaston Maspero was appointed director in 1899 of the Service of Antiquities, as this branch is known, and was succeeded in October 1914 by Pierre Lecau. Several permanent commissions are at work in various parts of the country. Consult Champollion, Monuments de l'Egypte (1843); Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt' (1877); Petrie, 'History of Egypt (1894); Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt' (1881).

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. The most ancient monuments of the world's architecture in stone are those of the Nile Valley. The ruins of some ancient Chaldean buildings are probably of earlier date, but they are almost formless piles of sun-dried brick, while the tombs and pyramids of the early Egyptian dynasties are many of them in excellent preservation. The people who built them were probably of Asiatic origin but long-settled along

the Nile, and were a highly civilized race thousands of years B.C. It is customary to divide the history of ancient Egyptian art into five periods: (1) the Ancient (or Memphitic) Empire, cir. 3400-2160 B.C., comprising ten dynasties of kings; (2) the Middle Empire, with Thebes as capital, 2160-1788 B.C., two dynasties; (3) the Second Thebaic or New Empire (15881150 B.C.), comprising the dynasties xvii-xx, and separated from the Middle Empire by the artistic interregnum of the Hyksos or Shepherd kings (Arabs); (4) the Decadence or Saitic period of six dynasties, 1150-324 B.C., which includes the Persian conquest in 525 B.C., and (5) the Ptolemaic and Roman period (324 B.C.-300 A.D.). Then followed a period of over three centuries during which the only architectural works were Coptic churches and monasteries. The Arabs conquered Egypt in 642 A.D., since which date the architecture has been of the Arabo-Moslem or "Saracenic" style, an architecture of mosques, tombs, palaces, baths, fountains and city gates. As this last period, with its infiltrations of Turkish influence since 1517, is treated of under MOSLEM ART (q.v.), the present article will be confined mainly to the ancient art of the five periods, with brief reference to the Coptic development.

Materials and Character. There is evidence that the primitive architecture of the Egyptians was of mud ("crude" or sun-dried brick) and wood, but the monuments that have survived to our time are of stone, except for scanty remains of brick. The stones employed were granite of various kinds and limestone; the coarser stone being often furnished with a thin layer of stucco to receive painted decoration. The architecture was almost entirely of tombs and temples, although remains of palaces of the New Empire have been excavated, and there are vestiges of fortifications at Semneh and Gournah. The civilization of Egypt was distinctively monarchical and religious and this is clearly shown in the architecture. There is little change of style until the time of the Ptolemies; what variations there were came about by imperceptibly slow degrees, and an air of changeless duration marks every work of ancient Egypt. Yet earthquakes and the destructive invasions of Persians and Arabs have wrecked partly or completely nearly every one of these massive structures.

All the Egyptian monuments of antiquity were built on the post-and-lintel or wall-andlintel principle, the arch being used only in minor constructions of brick. But one form of cornice is found the "cavetto-cornice" — in all the wide range of the ancient monuments through more than 3,000 years. There were no "orders" employed; the columns show a wide variety of capitals, generally reducible to two chief types, the "bud" and the "floral" or campani form type; and the shafts are with a few exceptions either round or clustered, the former predominating. The "bud" and "floral" types of capital are either simple or compound, the latter predominating in the later periods. All the walls, ceilings and columns of the temples were covered with symbolic or historical decorations, incised and painted in brilliant colors, and sculptured figures of the deified king or of the god Osiris, fronted the entrances and the courtyard piers of the temples.