from being indivisible, as assumed under the older theories, is made up of smaller bodies termed electrons, that these electrons are electrical in their nature, and consequently all matter ultimately is electrical, the atoms of the different elements of matter consisting of a certain number of electrons, thus, 700 in the hydrogen atom and 11,200 in the oxygen atom. This theory of matter though of comparatively recent origin in several of its important features is not altogether one of a day, nor is it due to the researches of one man or to the conception of one mind. Thus, as regards the view that the atom is not an indivisible particle of matter, but is made up of numerous electrons, many scientists have for years held that all the elements are modifications of a single hypothetical substance, protyle, "the undifferentiated material of the universe." Nor is the theory entirely new in its assumption that all matter is electrical. Faraday, Weber, Helmholtz, Clifford and others had glimpses of this view; and the experimental work of Zeeman, Goldstein, Crookes, J. J. Thomson and others had greatly strengthened this view. Over 35 years ago Weber predicted that electrical phenomena were due to the existence of electrical atoms, the influence of which on one another depended on their position and relative accelerations and velocities. Helmholtz and others also contended that the existence of electrical atoms followed from Faraday's laws of electrolysis, and Johnstone Stoney, to whom is due the term "electron," showed that each chemical ion of the decomposed electrolyte carries a definite and constant quantity of electricity, and inasmuch as these charged ions are separated on the electrodes as neutral substances there must be an instant, however brief, when the charges must be capable of existing separately as electrical atoms; while in 1887, Clifford (q.v.) wrote: "There is great reason to believe that every material atom carries upon it a small electric current, if it does not wholly consist of this current."

Whether the electronic theory will survive or will in turn be displaced by some more suitable theory remains for the future to determine. In the meantime, be that as it may, the practical application of electricity will go on apace. It is an every day saying of laymen that electricity is as yet in its infancy. This remark causes technical men to smile, for "electricity" is already a most prodigious infant. But in the sense that we may only be on the threshold of the possible utilizations of this most wonderful of nature's agents, the remark is perhaps true. Predictions that were with diffidence made in the closing decade of last century to the effect that within 100 years of that time people would probably speak to one another without artificial means of communication; that wires would be laid along every street and tapped into every house as gas pipes were then, for lighting and power purposes, have been for a decade facts accomplished. What the next 20 years shall bring forth with regard to the applications of electricity none can tell. Twenty years ago it would have been difficult to find one steam railroad engineer willing to admit that application of electric traction to steam railroads was a possibility. To-day much has been done in this

direction in the improvement of railroad terminal facilities, and it is now difficult to find one steam railroad engineer who will deny that in 20 years hence all the important steam railroads of this country may not be operated electrically. In other directions the progress of events as to the utilization of electric power may be expected to be equally rapid. În every part of the world the power of falling water, nature's perpetual motion machine, which has been going to waste since the world began, is now being converted into electricity and transmitted by wire hundreds of miles to points where it is usefully and economically employed. (See ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY). But the extensive utilization of falling water will not be limited to natural water falls. In hundreds of places where a fall of 40 to 400 feet extends over 10 to 50 miles, and where in the aggregate hundreds of thousands of horse power, by suitable hydraulic methods, are available, this power will be usefully employed, thereby in large measure conserving the limited quantity of the world's coal. It has for instance been proposed to dam Niagara River at the foot of the gorge whereby another source of water power equal to that at the present falls would be available. The Jehlun River in Kashmir, India, too, has a fall of 2,480 feet in 80 miles with a minimum flow of 30,000 gallons per second, and a beginning has been made to develop the 1,000000 electric horse power here represented, a considerable portion of which it is proposed to utilize in the production of nitrate of lime for fertilizer purposes, by combining by means of powerful electric currents the limestone that abounds in this region with the nitrogen of the air, a combination which Danish engineers have shown to be commercially possible, and which inexhaustible product may in time be economically available to replenish the failing powers of the farm lands of America and other countries. Within 10 or 20 years also that dream of the electrical engineer, the direct production of electricity from coal without the intervention of the steam engine with its wasteful methods, may be realized. Other means, now unknown, of developing electricity may be wrested from nature's storehouse. Indeed in view of the past progress of electricity, and especially in view of its marvelous progress in the last two decades, theoretically and practically, it requires no great exercise of the imagination to conceive that the time may not be far distant when the universal artificial source of the world's heat, light and power, will be electricity, and that what is now only surmise as to the sameness of electricity and matter will be demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt. Not only will wireless telegraphy be more perfected than at present, but wireless telephony, and "seeing by electricity" to a distance, may all be practically accomplished. Indeed, it is not even beyond the possibilities that the transference of thought directly from brain to brain with the ether as the medium-the suggestion of which is now regarded as the vagary of a disordered imagination may then also be realized. In short our successors of 25 or 30 years hence may wonder at our obtuseness in not perceiving the obviousness of things which to them may then be selfevident, virtually as we now marvel at the simplicity of our cleverest ancestors in so long

failing to recognize the identity of frictional, animal, and voltaic electricity, or the more simple fact that the wind, by them regarded as a phenomenon, is merely air in motion.

WILLIAM MAVER, JR., Author of American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph'; Fellow, American Institute Electrical Engineers.

ELECTRICITY, Atmospheric. Experiments have shown that there is always free electricity in the atmosphere, which is sometimes negative and sometimes positive, but most generally positive, and the intensity of this free electricity is greater in the middle of the day than at morning or night and is greater in winter than in summer. In fine weather the potential increases with altitude at the rate, according to some writers, of about 30 volts per foot. To detect the presence of free electricity in the air a pointed metal rod projecting into the air several feet and connected at its lower end to a gold leaf electroscope may be used. When this rod is projected into the air a few feet the leaves diverge. Kites and balloons have also been used to detect and, so to speak, draw down the free electricity of the air. The origin of atmospheric electricity is still unknown. Some physicists have ascribed it to the friction of the air upon the ground, others to the gradual oxidation of plant and animal life, others again to evaporation, to induction from the sun, and to differences of temperature. Most authorities are agreed, however, that whatever may be the origin of free electricity in the atmosphere the electricity of enormous voltages that disrupts the air and produces the phenomena of lightning (q.v.) is due to the condensation of the watery vapor forming the clouds; each minute vapor drop as it moves through the air collecting upon its surface a certain amount of free electricity. Then as these drops of vapor coalesce into larger drops with a corresponding decrease in the total surface exposed the electric potential rises until it overcomes the resisting power of the air. This remark will be more clearly understood when it is considered that with a given charge of electricity its potential rises as the electrical capacity of the object holding the charge is decreased, which is the case when the minute vapor drops coalesce into larger drops. The similarity of lightning to the electricity developed by an electrical machine was demonstrated by Franklin in his memorable kite experiments.

Saint Elmo's fire (q.v.) is another phase of atmospheric electricity to be considered in this connection. It is otherwise known as the fire of Saint Elias, of Saint Clara, of Saint Nicholas and of Helena, as well as composite, composant or corposant (that is, corpus sancium). The phenomenon is observed, usually during a thunder storm, at the tops of trees, spires, etc., or on the heads of animals, as a brush or star of light.

ELECTRICITY, Cause of Death by. As is well known, one of the most important safeguards of the human body against the passage of electrical currents through it is its high degree of resistance. This degree of resistance, however, is subject to a considerable amount of variation. If the skin is dry the resistance is from 5 to 20 times as great as when

the skin is wet. From what is known of the amount of electrical current necessary to cause death in man, it is probable that 1,600 volts of electromotive force, of a continuous current, is sufficient to bring about this end, and that an alternating current of half this voltage would probably be fatal. In fact, the general deduction has been drawn from the experiments conducted in electrocution work at the Sing Sing prison, that no human body can withstand an alternating current of 1,500 volts, and 300 has produced death, while for the continuous current it may be necessary that over 3,000 volts may be required to bring about fatal results. Some of the minor injuries due to lightning and electricity are severe burns, paralysis of some of the muscles, deafness, loss of smell and taste, hysterical phenomena, traumatic neuroses. Occasionally blindness has resulted, also insanities of the maniacal type have been known to occur, following lightning stroke. As to the cause of death by lightning and electricity, modern research has shown that there are marked changes in the blood vessels of a hæmorrhagic type, and minute alterations in the nerve cells, but these seem to be secondary to the physiological action that the electrical current has upon the fibres of the heart muscle. The electrical shock brings about a condition of delirium or fibrillary contraction of the heart muscle, causing a stoppage of that organ. This theory of the cause of death at present has the largest number of adherents.

As to what can be done for the treatment of electrical shocks, medical science is still somewhat in doubt. For all practical purposes, death, when it takes place, is instantaneous. The evidence derived from non-fatal cases is of great interest. In these, personal experience has shown that a number of individuals who have been rendered unconscious have recognized in the brief moments of consciousness the experience of a strange sensation. Recoveries from the shock of electricity or lightning which have been severe enough to bring about unconsciousness are very common. As to the border lines which separate the recoverable from the fatal cases it seems difficult to determine. Promptness in the treatment is imperative. External heat to the body, artificial respiration and cardiac stimulants should be used simultaneously. It is of importance to remember that the body of a patient in contact with live wires must not be touched by the rescuer with naked hands, but should be dragged away by his clothing, or removed from contact with the earth by slipping a board under him, thus to break the connection with the live wires. Live wires may also be raised by a stick and thus take the body out of the circuit. Artificial respiration (q.v.) by the Sylvester method or by means of the Gibbon's pump should be performed and the body should be surrounded by hot bottles or bricks, and rubbed, and suitable cardiac stimulants should be utilized. Injections of large quantities of hot salt solution into the rectum may be of service and occasionally it may be necessary to infuse normal salt solution directly into the veins. Efforts at artificial respiration should not be discontinued under from three to six hours. Consult Jelliffe, 'Peterson and Haynes Textbook of Legal Medicine and Toxicology.'

We have, therefore, the fact that an electrified body attracts or is attracted by an unelectrified body. Another experiment of a simple character may be mentioned. Take a piece of warm brown paper or sheet of foolscap, place it upon a warm board and rub it well over with a piece of india-rubber, it clings to the board; or remove it from the board and apply it to the wall of the room, and it adheres to the wall and remains in its position till its electricity is dissipated. Observation of these phenomena led to the development of the electric machine (q.v.).

ELECTRICITY FROM HEAT. The deriving of electricity directly from the application of heat is interesting, though it has not proven of commercial value. Two different metals in contact usually show a difference of potential. This difference is most marked in the case of bismuth and antimony. When bars of these metals are soldered together at one end and the opposite ends connected by a copper wire, and a flame is applied to the point of junction a slight electric current is set up, flowing through the closed circuit thus formed. The cooling of the point of junction also sets up a current. An apparatus made on this principle is called a thermo-electric couple, and a series of such couples, arranged to work together, is called a thermopile; a still larger aggregation of thermoelectric couples arranged in rings superimposed has been styled a thermo-electric generator. With any of these contrivances the current obtained is so minute as to serve no purpose except experiment. The thermopile is valued for experimental purposes because of the great constancy obtainable with a very slight current. Iron is not a good metal to use in a thermopile, because at certain temperatures its potential coincides with nearly all other metals, so that there would be no current when that temperature was reached.

Pyroelectricity is not to be confused with thermo-electricity because of the similarity of name. It treats of the phenomena of electric polarity in minerals on being heated or cooled. The quality of pyroelectricity is best shown in tournaline, a crystal of which on being heated from about 10° to 150° C. displays positive electrification at one end and negative at the other; but on cooling the polarity is reversed and the positive and negative ends change places. Twin crystals of quartz also show the phenomena and other crystals in a lesser degree.

ELECTRICITY IN MEDICINE. ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS.

ELECTRICITY

MINES AND MINING.

See

IN MINING. See

ELECTRICS and NON-ELECTRICS. The chief work of the earliest experimenters in electricity was to divide bodies into electrics, which they could excite by friction, like amber; and non-electrics, such as the metals, which they could not so excite. These names were given to the two classes by Gilbert of Colchester (1600). But Du Fay (1733-45) showed that electrics are identical with non-conductors, and non-electrics with conductors; and that the reason why nonelectrics did not exhibit excitement by friction was that the electricity was conducted away from them as fast as it was produced. The distinction was thus broken down.

ELECTRO-BIOLOGY, the science which treats of the electric currents developed in living organisms; also the department of knowledge which treats of the influence or control over the feelings, thoughts and actions of a mesmerized person. Very simple powers of observation show that the motions of a man's body are under the direction of his will. He puts forth his hand because he wills to do so; he walks through volition, even though his mind be occupied with other things; and talks or is silent as his will directs. It follows that there is some method by which the will communicates with the physical mechanism of that wonderful machine, the human body. Through anatomy we learn that the muscles do the work, and that the nerves guide the muscles, and that the nerves all proceed from or centre in the brain. Through chiropractic we learn to plot the paths of the nerves through the body, and discover when their office is interfered with. Through phrenology we learn that certain classes of nerves connect with certain portions of the brain, and thus certain brain areas are identified with certain physical, mental and moral capacities.

But the thing we cannot demonstrate-because we cannot see it is just how the will connects with a portion of the brain and sends out its order, which we know travels through the nerves to the muscles. Therefore we have to theorize as to how this is done, and the best theory appears to be the electric or magnetic theory, that that which Mesmer called "animal magnetism" is the medium of exchange. This is not meant as an endorsement of all that Mesmer said and did-far from it- but simply that the force, process or thing used and little understood by Mesmer is the same force, process or thing that translates a man's will into brain action. The problem is elucidated by a study of hypnotism and mediumistic control. It will be remembered that mesmerism and hypnotism have been identified as based on the same natural laws, and that all authorities on the subject are in agreement that in hypnotism one person's will is replaced by another person's. The subject (or victim) of a hypnotist surrenders his will to the hypnotist, to the degree in which he is brought under the influence of hypnosis. This is why the subject obeys the commands of the hypnotist, even when told to do ridiculous and absurd things. The hypnotist has got control of the subject's "magnetism" for the time being, and he is helpless, a mere puppet or slave of his hypnotist's will. This is logical and rational, and for a fuller exposition of the subject the reader is referred to the article on HYPNOTISM. Mesmer apparently was right in his assumption that by mesmeric passes he gained control of his patient's magnetism. His theory was that there existed "a fluid universally diffused, continuous, and naturally susceptible of receiving, propagating and communicating all motor disturbances." (Binet and Fere, 'Animal Magnetism,' p. 5.) This is exactly the sort of fluid that meets the requirements of transmitting one's will to one's brain and nerves; but to-day we do not use the word "fluid," rather "ether" to express the medium

through which electricity, magnetism, X-rays and similar manifestations are believed to travel. Mesmer considered that the human body was charged with this magnetism much as the earth is charged with electricity, and the theory stands analysis. He called it "animal magnetism," which is here used as the most familiar term, though it might better be termed "physical magnetism." That animals have it as well as humans is shown by the fact that animals can be hypnotized. Away back in 1646 Father Athanasius Kirchner described his hypnotizing of poultry, and later this became a fashionable pastime in France. In 1872 Czermak repeated his experiments, and also hypnotized birds, rabbits, salamanders and crabs.

Whether this animal magnetism is identical with animal electricity, or whether - as is more probable it is a separate form of some higher etheric vibration than electricity, is interesting, but not all-important, and appears never to have been demonstrated. The vital fact of interest in electro-biology is that the human organism is virtually a vitalized dynamo, that gathers charge from the air breathed, and which gives off energy through the muscles under the direction of the will. Electrical engineers commonly make this comparison, being struck with the similarity of the human organism with the electric dynamo. And the fact that the human organism gets its charge of magnetism through the air breathed suggests that human magnetism is either universal in space or at least existent in both the air and water in which men and fishes live.

Another proof of the reality of this thing we call "animal magnetism" is furnished by spiritualistic or mediumistic phenomena. The "animal magnetism" is believed to be the cause of the "aura," of which every student has read, but which few have seen. Spiritualistic mediums often speak of witnessing an individual's aura, but this evidence will satisfy only those who believe in mediumship. To actually see the aura or evidence of human magnetism this experiment is suggested: Arrange a perfectly black background and place a large, strong man about five feet in front of it, at dusk or twilight. Take a position 20 to 40 feet away, and gaze steadily on the scarcely visible form of the man. When the conditions and distances are right anyone of good sight will see a faint radiance or aura emanating from and outlining the man on the black background. It is claimed that the more moral the man the brighter the aura, and that this is why the old masters painted auras about the heads of pictures of saints and especially of Jesus Christ. Another evidence of the reality of this magnetism comes from the spiritualistic mediums. They claim that the work of mediumship is extremely exhausting, and deprives them of their magnetism, and that this is why they cannot give genuine exhibitions ad libitum as visitors may demand. And many who have investigated mediumship are convinced that this is so.

The term electro-biology was coined about 1850 to describe the relationship between electricity and life. We do not know what electricity is, and we do not know what life is; we have to judge of both by their manifestations. We know little of the nature and nothing

of the origin of either, although some scientific men and some theologians are apt to be dogmatic in asserting that this or that must be or cannot be possible. But we do know that through some medium the will controls man's sensory organism and physical functions, and we choose to call this thing "animal magnetism," as Mesmer called it, and to consider it of the nature of electricity. Reasoning analogously, that as the wireless telegraph conveys a certain vibration which may be picked up by an instrument hundreds of miles away through etheric vibrations, caught by a coherer or detector, so we conclude that the will also originates vibrations, which many call thought-vibrations, and sends them through the etheric magnetism that imbues all men and animals, and perhaps all nature. But ordinarily these vibrations are picked up and responded to only by the organism of the man who sends them out, presumably because his magnetic vibrations harmonize with his physical body. It is also logical to reason that this sort of magnetism exists everywhere, as we suppose electricity pervades the universe, and that the phenomena of telepathy or thoughttransference, and mind-reading, are explainable through harmonic vibrations of the ether which this magnetism permeates and pervades. Clairvoyage and clairaudience likely are closely related, so that in solving the problem of physical magnetism probably these will also se solved.

It is stated in The Great Psychological Crime' (p. 178) that “animal magnetism is an important factor in the development of mediumship," and that "the room in which the sittings are held must become thoroughly magnetized with the animal magnetism of the controlling intelligences." The reader who cares to pursue the subject further should consult this book. CHARLES H. COCHRANE. ELECTRO-BRONZE. See ELECTROPLAT

ING.

ELECTROCHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS. The general principles of electrochemistry (q.v.) and especially Faraday's laws (q.v.) have shown us a definite quantitative relation between the amount of electricity passing in a given electrolysis, and the amount of decomposition resulting. According to Faraday's laws, the amount of any given element which will be deposited by a given amount of current is directly proportional to the amount of current passing, and to the chemically equivalent weight of the element in question. Quantitatively, it requires 96,500 coulombs of electricity (ampere-seconds) to deposit a chemically equivalent weight of any substance; or, to put it in a more practical way, it requires 96,500 coulombs to make a unit change of valence of a gramatom of any substance. From this numerical relation one can then calculate the weight of any element that will be deposited by a unit amount of current in a unit time. This is called the Electrochemical Equivalent of the element. For scientific purposes it is usually stated in grams per coulomb or per ampere-hour; for commercial use larger units are convenient, such as kilograms or pounds per ampere-day, or per 1,000 ampere-hours.