of the deities of the Pantheon are well known and their general characteristics are sufficiently defined, but the gradations between them and the conceptions which gave them force are obscured not only by the most curious inconsistencies but by the fog of mythology which is for the most part unknown to us. Religious conceptions existed during all periods, but never a religion in any true sense. It is plain enough that the differences in religious belief and practice corresponded to the primitive condition of the land, each district having its chief object of veneration. It was a condition of Henotheism out of which, in consequence of the closer contact produced by the union of the nomoi under a central government, there grew up a system of national polytheism in which the principal god of the capital gained pre-eminence. The original deities were objects of nature, but their development was various in the different nomoi. Only at a later date did gods appear who represented abstract or cosmogonical ideas. When intimate association occurred there was a resultant confusion of attributes and names. The hegemony of the god of the capital contained in itself the motives of Monotheism, but there is no indication that Monotheism was the original form of the Egyptian religion or that the people ever advanced to it, in spite of such phrases as "the only god" and the like. When carefully examined these expressions are found to refer to the deity held in special reverence in a particular locality, the "city god" or the leader of the local triad or ennead. Endowed temples and independent priests of separate deities prove that a determined resistance was made to any attempt to introduce monotheism, such as is actually seen in the case of Amenophis IV. Ptah was the god of Memphis; Neith, the warlike goddess of Libyan Sais; Chnum of Elephantine was the deity of the cataract regions; Nechebt was goddess of the south in general; Min was the desert god; Osiris of Abydon supplanted an earlier deity; Amon of Thebes, Anubis of Tycopolis, Tum of Heliopolis, Bast of Bubastis, Sebek of the Fayum, Hathor of Denderah, Horus of Edfu, Thoth of Hermopolis, Mont of Hermonthes are examples of the local gods.

The forms of many of the deities are extremely grotesque. It may be a human or animal shape but frequently it is a mixture of the two; the human trunk being surmounted by an animal head. Thus Ptah appears as the ApisBull; Hapi, Amon and Chnum as rams; Sebek as a crocodile-headed man; Nechebt as a serpent; Mut as a vulture; Anubis as a jackalheaded man; Bast as a cat-headed woman; Sechmet and Tefmut as lion-headed; Hathor as a cow; Horus as a hawk, or hawk-headed man; Thoth as an ibis. The Phoenix is possibly derived from Benu of Hieropolis, which appears as a heron.

In various periods of the history certain deities appear as deifications of the powers of nature: Ra, the sun, the ruler of the world, having his sanctuary at Heliopolis, was even in prehistoric times conceived as a person; Horus, the bringer of light, is represented in conflict with Set, the god of darkness; Ra-Harmachis was the rising sun; Ra-Tum the sun at evening. Thoth was also worshipped as the moon. The number of mythological beings, such as Nun, the original ocean, out of which Ra proceeded,

is beyond number. Mat, the goddess of truth,. represents a large class which symbolizes abstract notions. Deities are also portrayed in pairs, such as Aeb, god of earth, and Hut, goddess of Heaven, Shu and Tefnut, Osiris and Isis. In these pairs is seen the family relation which is carried out in numerous ways, not without great confusion. Much of the religion has its explanation only in connection with the future life. When the soul or "double" (ka) left the body, the latter was preserved with extreme care and deposited in a secure tomb, for the personal existence of the disembodied spirit depended upon the absolute preservation of the mummy. The future of the individual was determined by a judgment which is represented as weighing of the heart by Horus, who counterbalances it with the symbol of the truth. Mat, the goddess of truth, watches the operation, and Thoth, scribe of the gods, registers the result. In the earliest periods specific beliefs as to their nature, qualities and powers, clustered about the individual deities, but these did not become a true mythology till the amalgamation of variant views under the influence of the national union of the nomoi. The confusion which resulted led to attempts at harmony. But little is known of this mass of mythology, which must have been very extensive if one is to judge by the allusions abounding in every religious text.

The ancient Egyptian religion was, therefore, a kind of philosophical pantheism, the various attributes of the deity being divided among the different gods of the Pantheon. Unlike the Greek, where a god was honored in a separate temple, each Egyptian divinity was accompanied by a paut, or "company" of companion-gods.

A few foreign deities became at the close of the 18th dynasty engrafted upon the religious system as Bar, Baal; Ashtarata, Ashtaroth; Anta, Anaitis; Ken, Kiun; Reshpu, Reseph; Set, or Sutekh, sometimes identified with Baal. All the gods had human passions and affections, and their mode of action was material; they walked on earth, or sailed through ethereal space in boats. First among the deities comes Ptah, the opener, represented as the creator of the world, the sun and moon, out of chaos (ha) or matter, to whom belong Sekhet, "the lioness" and Bast, Bubastis, lion-headed goddesses presiding over fire, and Nefer-Tum, his son, a god wearing a lotus on his head. Next in the cosmic order is Chnum-worshipped at Elephantinethe ram-headed god of the liquid element, who also created the matter of which the gods were made; and connected with him are the goddesses Heka the Frog, or "primeval formation," Sati, or "sunbeam" and Anuka, alluding to the genesis of the cosmos. The Theban triad comprised Amen-ra, "the hidden» power of the "sun," the Jupiter; Mut, the "Mother" goddess of "Matter the Juno; Nit, the "Shuttle," the Minerva; and Khons, "Force" is Hercules, a lunar type. A subordinate type of Amon is Khem or Amsu, "the enshrined," who, as Harnekht, or Powerful Horus, unites beginning and end, or cause and effect.

A great variety of abstract principles and even animals and vegetables were, however, worshipped by the multitude, though the doctrine of one God was privately taught by the priests to a select few. Many of the ani

mals, birds and reptiles were held sacred by the Ancient Egyptians; whoever killed a sacred animal, an ibis or a hawk, was put to death. If a cat died a natural death every person in the house shaved his eyebrows; if a dog died, the whole body and the head were shaved. The cats were sacred to the goddess Bast and were buried at Bubastis and the dogs in the vaults of their own cities, field-mice and hawks at Buto, the ibis at Hermopolis and other animals where they were found lying. Of all animals the sacred bull, Apis, was the most revered. His chief temple was at Memphis. The cow, being sacred to Isis, was thrown into the Nile, which was considered sacred; and the Apis bull was buried in the Serapeum near Memphis.

Of the doctrines of the Egyptian religion little is accurately known. The existence of the spirit after death was believed and a future state of rewards and punishments inculcated, in which the good dwelt with the gods, while the wicked were consigned to fiery torments amid perpetual darkness. It was believed that after the lapse of ages the spirit would return to the body, which was therefore carefully embalmed. See BOOK OF THE Dead; EmbALMING; MOHAMMEDANISM; IDOLATRY; PANTHEISM.

Social Organization, Manners and CusAtoms. The monuments are fuller than the enumeration of Herodotus and Diodorus, who name seven and five classes respectively. Herodotus gives priests, warriors, cowherds, swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters and boatmen; Diodorus, priests, warriors, husbandmen, shepherds and artisans. All these existed, but the enumeration is defective. True caste was unknown. The population was divided into two great parts-nobles and slaves-- while the middle class has left its traces from the Middle Empire onward. The upper class included royalty and those in the service of the state or religion, a ruling class, far removed from the slave population, foreign and native. They formed the backbone of the state, filled all the higher offices and were obeyed by all their social inferiors. At the head of the government stood Pharaoh, "King of the Upper and Lower Egypt, son of Ra, eternal." Rameses II is bombastically called "Horus, the mighty bull, beloved of the Goddess of Truth, protector of Egypt, subduer of barbarians, rich in years, great in victory, chosen of Ra, Rameses, beloved of Ra." Similarly the queen is called "the consort of the God, mother of the God, the great consort of the king"-god and king being interchangeable terms. She was usually of royal blood, often own sister of the king, his equal in birth and place - "Mistress of the House." Crown prince and princes came next in order. The upper classes consisted of "the nearest friend" of the king and friends of various grades, generals, high priests, officers, physicians, overseers, district chiefs, judges, keeper of the seal, master builders, treasurers, fan-bearers, scribes and others. Officialdom ramified in numberless class gradations, whether the order was priestly, military, literary, architectural or agricultural. Advancement went by royal or other favor. The middle class remained in the background and is less known because its members could not, like kings and nobles, erect those enduring tombs from which our knowledge of the times is obtained. After the removal of the necropolis from Memphis to Abydos during

the Middle Empire and owing to the increasing practice of erecting memorial stelae, the monuments of untitled persons begin to appear, giving a conception of their number and position. They possessed households similar to those of officials and in many ways appear to have been their equals. They were merchants, traders, artisans, free workmen, weavers, potters, carpenters, joiners, smiths, etc. The lowest class was composed of the slaves, native or taken in war, who were hewers of wood and drawers of water, performing all menial offices. They were mere chattels, belonging to temple, necropolis, or landed estate and were often organized as a part of the military establishment. Closely allied to them were the shepherds, the pariahs of Egyptian society.

Agriculture, manufacture and trade were carried on in Egypt in the very earliest days. Upon the ancient monuments we find representations of the mechanical arts, where we see the blow-pipe, bellows, siphons, press, balance, lever, saw, adze, chisel, forceps, syringe, harpoon, razors; we have also glazed pottery, the potter's wheel and the kiln; and dated specimens of glass of the time of (Thothmes III, 1445 B.C.). Gold-beating, damascening, engraving, casting, inlaying, enameling, wire drawing and other processes were practised. Weapons and other instruments of war, shields, cuirasses of quilted leather, helmets, spears, clubs, maces, daggers, bows, battle-axes, pole-axes, hatchets and falchions are shown. The testudo, ladders, torches and lanterns were also in use. In agriculture the plow, hoe, sickle and other implements were employed. The processes of growing and preparing flax and making it into thread, string, ropes and cloth, as well as the looms employed, are all depicted. Mats and baskets were beautifully made, either of the halfa grass or palm leaves, or of the outer rind of the papyrus plant, which was used in making paper. Coffins or wooden sarcophagi were chiefly of sycamore or cedar, covered with stucco and richly painted. The ordinary boats of the Nile were planks of the acacia and had two rudders or large oars, with a sail of cloth frequently painted or worked in colored patterns. Many of the vessels of burden were of great size. The boats made of papyrus were mostly punts for fishing, or for gliding through the canals of the Delta. Implements for painting ladles, bells, crucibles and surgical instruments have also been found. The commerce of the Egyptians with neighboring nations enriched the country with slaves, cattle, gems, metals,_ rare animals and objects of curiosity. The Egyptians expended enormous wealth on the tombs and furniture of the dead, and the paintings acquaint us fully with the various ceremonies followed. In embalming they excelled. Each administrative department had its own troop of laborers under its own overseer, who kept minute tally of work performed, rations distributed and of absentees. The troop, not the individual, was the unit. All artisans as well as the slaves were regarded superciliously by the scribes and held in lower repute than the agriculturists, though the products of their skill still command admiration. Weavers working with papyrus reeds or with linen thread, produced baskets, boats, mats, or the finest linen cloths; joiners though handicapped by lack of good raw material, nevertheless produced creditable work

by the use of instruments most simple in their character. Potters through all periods reproduced patterns tenaciously and with little variation, but atoned for the rudeness of much of their work by the fineness of their products in faïence, the glazing of stone objects being especially noteworthy. Metal workers used gold, silver, bronze, iron and tin, the source whence tin was derived being problematical. A bronze is mentioned which was an alloy of six metals. Objects in bronze and iron have been found among the remains of the Old Empire, though the earliest bronze statue is one of Rameses II. The sources of most metals were the mines of Nubia and Sinai. In value silver exceeded gold and a mixture of the two is frequently mentioned. The processes of agriculture are well portrayed on the walls of the tombs. The plow was simply a sharpened stick dragged through the ground by oxen; the hoe a broad blade fastened to a handle, a second cord midway of each preventing too great a strain. The seed once scattered was trampled in by animals. Harvesting was done by a short sickle; the grain was carried in sheaves to the threshing floor, where the hoofs of cattle performed the required labor. Winnowing was done with shovel and wind and the grain was stored in conical receptacles open at the top, to which the bearers mounted on ladders. Supplementary irrigation was by a well sweep similar to the modern shadouf. These labors were so essential a part of Egyptian life that the future life was portrayed under exactly the same circumstances, happiness consisting essentially in the degree in which personal performance could be avoided. Cattle of all sorts, asses, sheep, pigs and goats existed in great herds and were tended by slaves and peasants whose occupations in marshy districts so far removed them from civilization that they were regarded with detestation. Their disrepute is the more remarkable in view of the evident pride with which landed proprietors enumerated their flocks.

The schools, "bookhouse" or "house of instruction" presided over by a scribe, was an institution of the Old Empire, which received all classes alike and prepared them for the technical education of the special bureau. In the New Empire both branches were combined in the departmental schools. Orthography, caligraphy, style and the formulæ of etiquette comprised the known curriculum; the rest was learned by practice. Many corrected school exercises have survived, containing various specimens of literature; tales, religious and magical texts, poems, codes of rules, or "instruction" of ancient sages for the proper regulation of daily life and statements of the unlovely condition of soldiers and laborers as contrasted with the beauty of the scribe's life, at once inciting to industry on the part of the pupil and to profound respect for the teacher. These papyri are of great value in affording a knowledge of orthography, language and literature. The tombs of the Old and Middle Empires represent the various operations of large landed estates in all their complexity. Such private ownership of the soil, of large tracts and even of whole villages, seems to have been a survival from the time when the princes of the nomor were at the head of the independent districts

which collectively constituted Egypt. A decided change is seen in the New Empire when the title to all land except that attached to temples was vested in the king and when it was worked for the state by slaves or let out at an annual rate per cent. The change came about during the Hyksos period or in the transition to the revived native dynasties. The biblical account of Joseph is of interest in this connection. The dwellings of the common people probably resembled those of the fellahin of to-day, being mud hovels, whose destruction accounts for the formation of the tells which mark city sites. The dwellings of nobles and kings were more pretentious, but no remains have survived. The only models by which to judge are some ancient sarchophagi of houselike form and some mural representations. Record has survived of a palace which stood 300 cubits square.

Family Life.- The position occupied by woman was quite extraordinary. In the household there was generally only one wife, though there might be several concubines or female slaves. Actual polygamy was infrequent, though the royal harem often contained 200 women. Private persons also maintained harems, the number of inmates depending on the financial ability of the individual. Inheritance and genealogy were reckoned by the mother, not the father, and while a man's possessions might descend to his sons, the line might also pass through the daughter to her sons. Sometimes marriages were contracted upon these considerations. It was a father's ambition to hand down his official position to his sons, and the title of "hereditary prince" is often met with. The practice of marriage with a sister is met with in early periods, but under the Ptolemies it was quite the rule, and the marriage contracts specified the amounts which the husband engaged to give annually to his wife for family purposes.

Costume. There is a constant development observable in the dress of the upper classes. Royalty set the fashions, and they were followed at intervals by those standing on the various social levels. There was a distinction between king and noble, and between noble and plebeian. The simple apron bound about the loins was always the essential garment. To this the king added a lion's tail, and the noble a panther's skin during the period of the Old Empire. During the Middle Empire the apron took a pointed triangular shape and became longer; next comes a double apron, a short one beneath, opaque, and a long and transparent one outside. The priest continued to wear the short apron, however, while the king had advanced to a mode of dress which covered the whole body and was complex in structure. That which before was holiday attire became the garb of every day. The dress of women was more uniform. It consisted at first of a close-fitting garment which extended from the breasts to the ankles, and was fastened by straps over the shoulders. Only in the latest periods were sleeved or sleeveless mantles worn. Transparent cloth was used for female wear, as for the outer apron of males, but without the inner garment. The dress of peasants consisted simply of the apron, which in some cases amounted only to a band with pendant ends. These simple articles were made of papyrus mats, leather or cloth.

The hair was worn short, but the shaving of the head does not appear to have been practised daily. Wigs of various forms and sizes were used as ceremonial head coverings. Specimens of them are not infrequent. Natural beards were not worn except by shepherds and similar persons but an artificial "imperial" beard was one of the marks of royalty and divinity in the tomb representations. Sandals of various sorts completed the costume. Egyptian garments of the better class were of linen, wool being regarded as filthy. The food of the lower classes consisted largely of bread and vegetables. The principal vegetables were kidney beans, lentils, turnips, radishes, carrots and spinach. Milk and cheese were also common articles of food. Pomegranates, dates, figs and grapes were plentiful. The flesh of the goat, ox, gazelle, antelope and other animals formed part of the dict of the middle classes, the flesh of the hog was not in use, this animal being considered uncleau. Geese, ducks, turtle doves and hens were abundant and even to-day are a source of considerable income to the laboring classes. Salt was extracted from the coast marshes and from some deposits in the Libyan desert. The national beverage was beer, seasoned with various plants. The wealthy classes drank wine of the grape and the common people the fermented juice of certain palms.

Recreations.-The dance to the accompaniment of the lute was a popular diversion. Acrobats and clowns performed in the royal and princely palaces. Checkers and chess much in the form of our day were also popular amusements. As regards furniture chairs and tables resembled closely those of the present day. Other articles appear to have been of simple construction. The hunting of wild animals was by coursing with dogs and the use of lasso and spear. The bow and arrow were seldom employed. Fishing was with line or net. Fowling was done in the marshy districts in boats, the weapon used being the boomerang. Traps and nets were also used. Wrestling matches and gymnastic exercises, ball-playing and juggling are often represented in paintings. Singing and music were the accompaniment of work and play, and at feasts, music and dancing, performed by members of the harem, enlivened the scene. The instruments used were the flute and a sort of whistle, the guitar, the harp, the lyre, the last two having sometimes nearly 20 strings. Assistants beat time by handclapping. Bow practice was engaged in and a game similar to quoits is represented, along with other games which cannot be understood in their details. T-shaped boards divided into squares like checker-boards have been found, but how they were used is uncertain. children were not forgotten, for the tombs have yielded several specimens of their toys.

The

Government. When the king was simply the first among equals, Upper Egypt was divided into 30 administrative departments of different grades, each having its nomarch or governor who stood as the head in everythingchief judge, district chief, military commander, tax collector, architect, treasurer, etc. As judge he was also chief priest of Mat, the goddess of truth. So long as the king retained supreme power this arrangement continued, but upon the decay of royal prestige each district chief aspired to leadership. This probably explains

the periods of confusion in the history indicated by the blanks between the 7th and 11th and the 13th and 17th dynasties. A new order came in during the period of the New Empire. The nomarch surrendered all his functions to the military official appointed by the king to look after his interests and to gather the taxes in kind, peaceably or forcibly as the case might be. Royal stewards and messengers, the "mouths" or "speakers" of the king appear as intermediaries. Some of the more important additional offices were those of chief judge, governor, building-master, treasurer, overseer of granaries, etc. The chief judge was a man of high standing, a prince or noble, or perhaps a priest. Beneath him were several grades in the office. Several sat as a court and before them complaint was made, prosecution and defense heard and judgment pronounced or referred to the king, according to the gravity of the complaint. The prosecutor might be a private person or a public official with whom the complaint was lodged. Confessions were forced with the bastinado. The severest punishments were the loss of ears and nose, or death by impaling, compulsory suicide, or poisoning. Accounts of trials are frequent, but no legal code has survived. In the earliest periods there was no standing army. Each nomos had its own militia and each temple its soldiers, who appear rather to have been police. This arrangement continued through the Middle Empire. The chief service rendered by soldiers in these periods was to escort expeditions to the quarries of Syene and Hammamat and to the mines of Sinai and Nubia. They also rendered service as laborers. Under Pepi (6th dynasty) a military expedition was undertaken against the Bedouin of the east. Ethiopian mercenaries formed the bulk of this force. Under Amenemha III (12th dynasty) expeditions to Nubia were undertaken and a stele of the period, now in Berlin, records the wailing which attended the visits of the conscripting officer, the "military scribe" who came to choose out the likely youth." About this time the king came to have a body guard and during the contest with the Hyksos the armies were increased. Mercenaries, however, were constantly employed as conscription was little employed. Bowmen formed the principal arm of the mercenaries; the chariot coming into use after the Hyksos wars, was constructed to contain two persons, driver and warrior. Border garrisons were maintained to the east and south. The native weapons were the spear and shield, the axe, lance, dagger and sling. Naval warfare was little practised.

Bibliography.-Binion, Ancient Egypt or Mizraim (1888); Birch, Egypt from the Earliest Time (1875); Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs (1874); Budge, History of Egypt' (8 vols.); The Gods of the Egyptians' (1904); Champollion, 'L'Egypte sousles Pharaons' (1814); Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt' (1894); Mahaffy, Empire of the Ptolemies' (1895); Renouf, The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (Hibbert Lectures 1880); Wiedemann, 'Religion of the Ancient Egyptians' (1897); Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians) (1879).

EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See SUDAN.

EGYPTIAN VULTURE (Neophron percnopterus), a well-known bird which frequents

both shores of the Mediterranean, southern India and, during the winter, South Africa. It is the scavenger of Egyptian villages, collecting in numbers where carrion or garbage is deposited, but feeding also on frogs, lizards and small mammals found in cultivated fields. The birds usually go in pairs, however, and addict themselves to particular localities, being only drawn together in numbers by abundance of their favorite food. The name, as also that of Pharaoh's hen, is given because of the frequent representation of this bird in Egyptian sculpture. See VULTURE.

EGYPTIANIZED CLAY is the name invented for the purpose of describing a certain treatment of clay by which a clay weak in strength and in plasticity is made stronger and more plastic. In this process the clay is treated with extract of straw, tannin and other plant products. The treatment reduces the particles of clay to a state so fine that they will pass through ordinary filter paper, and will remain permanently suspended in water. The employment of the extract of straw to make the clay stronger suggested to Edward G. Acheson (q.v.), the discoverer of the process, the name "Egyptianized clay" because of the Biblical story of the use of straw in the making of bricks.

EGYPTOLOGY, the science of Egyptian antiquities. See EGYPT.

EHEBERG, a'e-berg, Karl Theodor von, German political economist: b. Munich 1855. He received his education at the University of Munich and in 1882 was appointed professor of political economy at Erlangen. He is best known through his masterly presentation of the subject of finance in his Finanzwissenschaft' (3d ed., 1891; new ed., 1909). He also wrote Ueber das ältere deutsche Münzwesen und die Hausgenossenschaften besonders in volkswirthschaftlicher Beziehung) (1879), and 'Das Reichsfinanzwesen) (1908).

EHLERS, a'lers, Ernst Heinrich, German zoologist: b. Lüneburg 1835. He received his education at Göttingen and Munich and in 1860 became professor of zoology at Erlangen. In 1874 he became professor of zoology and comparative-anatomy at the University of Göttingen. With A. von Kölliker he edited the Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie. He wrote Zoologische Beiträge,' with W. Keferstein (1861); 'Die Borstenwürmer (1868); Hypophorella Expansa' (1876); Florida-Anneliden' (1887); Zur Kenntnis der Pedicellinen' (1890); Magellanische Anneliden Gesammelt während der Schwedischen Expedition nach der Magellansländern' (1900); Neuseelandische Anneliden' (1904).

EHLERS, Otto Ehrenfried, German traveler: b. Hamburg 1855; d. 1895. He studied at the universities of Jena, Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1887 he went to East Africa, and later traveled through India, the Andaman and Nicobar islands, Siam, French Indo-China, Korea, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands and the United States. In a second tour he again visited India, and went to Samoa, Kaiser Wilhelm's Land and New Guinea. In an effort to traverse the latter country he was slain by his guides. He wrote 'An indischen Fürstenhöfen' (2 vols., 1883; 5th ed., 1898); 'Im Sattel durch

Indochina (1894); Samoa, die Perle der Südsee (3d ed., 1896); 'Im Osten Asiens' (4th ed., 1900).

EHLERS, Rudolf, German theologian: b. Hamburg 1834; d. 1908. He received his education at the universities of Heidelberg, Berlin and Göttingen. For some time he was pastor at Stolberg, near Aachen, and in 1864 removed to the Protestant Reformed Church at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he exercised a wide influence as a theologian. In 1878 he was made consistorial councillor, and in the following year became one of the editors of the Zeitschrift für praktische Theologie. He published, among other works, 'Evangelische Predigten (1873) 'Das alte Gesetz und die neue Zeit' (1877) 'Bilder aus dem Leben des Apostels Paulus' (1886); Richard Rothe) (1906), and a philosophical work in Latin.

EHNINGER, an'ing-er, John Whetton, American artist: b. New York 1827; d. 1889. He studied under Couture in Paris and later studied at Düsseldorf. He left a number of portraits, and landscapes and figure subjects, including 'Peter Stuyvesant' (1850); 'Death and the Gambler'; Autumn Landscape' (1867); Twilight from the Bridge of Pau' (1878); illustrations for Longfellow's Miles Standish (1858) and for Irving's 'Dolph Heylinger' and 'Ye Legend of St. Gwendolyn' (1867).

EHRENBERG, a'ren-běrg, Christian Gottfried, German scientist: b. Delitzsch, 19 April 1795; d. Berlin, 27 June 1876. After studying theology, medicine and natural history at Leipzig and Berlin, he joined in 1820 an expedition to Palestine, Egypt and Abyssinia, returning to Berlin in 1825. In 1829 he accompanied Humbolt to the Ural and Altai ranges and to central Siberia. In 1839 he was appointed full professor of medicine, at Berlin. His great work on 'Infusoria' ('Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen') appeared in 1838, and was at once recognized as the highest authority on the subject. It was followed in 1854 by his 'Microgeology.' Ehrenberg's work gave an enormous impetus to the study of microscopic organisms. He was the first to show that the phosphorescence of the sea is due to the presence of hosts of animalcules. Consult Lane, 'Life' (1895).

ä'ren-brit'stin,

EHRENBREITSTEIN, Prussia, town and fortress on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Coblenz with which it is connected by a bridge of boats and a railroad bridge. Tobacco, flour, leather, soap, bricks and wine are manufactured and there is a large trade in corn, wine and iron. There are several large fairs held annually. The fortress is on a steep rock, 385 feet above the river. It has massive fortifications and until the advent of heavy siege artillery was deemed impregnable. In 1799 after repeated assaults had failed and after a siege of 14 months the French succeeded in capturing it. In 1801 they destroyed the fortifications and retired. In 1826 new fortifications were completed. Pop. 5,302.

EHRLE, ār'lė, Francis, German Catholic scholar: b. Isny, Würtemberg, 17 Oct. 1845. He was educated at the Jesuit College, Münster, Westphalia, at the Maria-Laach in Freiburg, and at Ditton Hall, Lancashire, having been ad