had been all ravaged and burnt, how the churches throughout the whole of England stood filled with treasures and books, and there was also a multitude of God's servants, but they 35 had very little knowledge of the books, for they could not understand anything of them, because they were not written in their own language. As if they had said: "Our forefathers, who formerly held these places, loved wisdom, and through it they obtained wealth and bequeathed it to us. 40 In this we can still see their tracks, but we cannot follow them, because we would not incline our hearts after their example."

When I remembered all this, I wondered extremely that the good and wise men who were formerly all over England, 45 and had perfectly learnt all the books, did not wish to translate them into their own language. But again I soon answered myself and said: "They did not think that men would ever be so careless, and that learning would so decay; through that desire they abstained from it, and they wished 50 that the wisdom in this land might increase with our knowledge of languages." Then I remembered how the law was first known in Hebrew, and again, when the Greeks had learnt it, they translated the whole of it into their own language, and all other books besides. And again the Romans, 55 when they had learnt it, they translated the whole of it through learned interpreters into their own language. And also all other Christian nations translated a part of them into their own language. Therefore it seems better to me, if ye think so, for us also to translate some books which are 60 most needful for men to know into the language which we can all understand, and for you to do as we very easily can if we have tranquillity enough, that is that all the youth now in England of free men, who are rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it, be set to learn as long as they are 65 not fit for any other occupation, until that they are well

able to read English writing; and let those be afterward taught in the Latin language who are to continue learning and be promoted to a higher rank.

When I remembered how the knowledge of Latin had formerly decayed throughout England, and yet many could 70 read English writing, I began, among other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to translate into English the book which is called in Latin Pastoralis, and in English Shepherd's Book, sometimes word by word and sometimes according to the sense, as I learnt it from Plegmund my arch- 75 bishop, and Asser my bishop, and Grimbold my mass-priest, and John my mass-priest. And when I had learnt it as I could best understand it, and as I could most clearly interpret it, I translated it into English; and I will send a copy to every bishopric in my kingdom; and on each there is a 80 clasp worth fifty mancus. And I command in God's name that no man take the clasp from the book or the book from the minster it is uncertain how long there may be such learned bishops as now, thanks be to God, there are nearly everywhere; therefore I wish them always to remain in their 85 place, unless the bishop wish to take them with him, or they be lent out anywhere, or any one make a copy from them.

THE ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE

677. In this year the star (called) comet appeared in August, and shone for three months every morning like a sunbeam. And Bishop Wilfrith was driven from his bishopric by King Ecgferth; and two bishops were hallowed in his stead: Bosa to Deira, and Eata to Bernicia. And 5 Eadhed was hallowed bishop by the people of Lindsey; he was the first of the bishops of Lindsey.

690. In this year Archbishop Theodore died. He was bishop twenty-two winters, and he was buried at Canter

10 bury; and Beorhtwald succeeded to the bishopric. Previously the bishops had been Romans; since then they were English.

699. In this year the Picts slew Beorht the alderman. 722. In this year Queen Ethelburh destroyed Taunton, 15 which Ine had previously built. And Ealdbriht the exile withdrew into Surrey and Sussex; and Ine fought against the South Saxons.

871. (abridged) About four days afterward, King Ethelred and his brother Alfred led a large force to Reading, and 20 fought against the army; and there was great slaughter on both sides. Earl Ethelwulf was slain, and the Danes held possession of the field. And about four days after this, Ethelred and Alfred fought against the whole army at Ashdown. And the Danes were in two divisions: in one were 25 Bagsecg and Halfdene the heathen kings; and in the other were the earls. King Ethelred fought against the division of the kings, and there was King Bagsecg slain; and his brother Alfred against the division of the earls. And both divisions were put to flight, and many thousands slain. And 30 afterward, about Easter, King Ethelred died; and he reigned five years, and his body lies at Wimborne. Then Alfred, son of Ethelwulf, succeeded to the kingdom of the West Saxons. And about a month after, King Alfred, with a small force, fought against the whole army at Wilton, and 35 put them to flight.

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MIDDLE ENGLISH ROMANCE

The Arming of Gawain

(From Sir Gawain and the Green Knight)

He dwelt there all that day, and on the morn he arose and asked betimes for his armor; and they brought it unto him on this wise. First, a rich carpet was stretched on the

floor (and brightly did the gold gear glitter upon it), then the knight stepped upon it, and handled the steel; clad he 5 was in a doublet of silk, with a close hood, lined fairly throughout. Then they set the steel shoes upon his feet, and wrapped his legs with greaves, with polished kneecaps, fastened with knots of gold. Then they cased his thighs in cuisses closed with thongs, and brought him the byrnie of bright steel 10 rings sewn upon a fair stuff. Well burnished braces they set on each arm with good elbow-pieces, and gloves of mail, and all the goodly gear that should shield him in his need. And they cast over all a rich surcoat, and set the golden spurs on his heels, and girt him with a trusty sword fastened with 15 a silken bawdrick. When he was thus clad, his harness was costly, for the least loop or latchet gleamed with gold. So armed as he was he hearkened Mass and made his offering at the high altar. Then he came to the king, and the knights of his court, and courteously took leave of lords and ladies, 20 and they kissed him, and commended him to Christ.

Gawain Keeps His Pledge

(From Sir Gawain and the Green Knight)

"Thou art welcome, Gawain," quoth the green warrior, "to my place. Thou hast timed thy coming as befits a true man. Thou knowest the covenant set between us at this time twelve months agone thou didst take that which fell to thee, and I at this New Year will readily requite thee. 5 We are in this valley, verily alone, here are no knights to sever us, do what we will. Have off thy helm from thine head, and have here thy pay; make me no more talking than I did then when thou didst strike off my head with one blow."

"Nay," quoth Gawain, "by God that gave me life, I shall make no moan whatever befall me, but make thou ready

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for the blow and I shall stand still and say never a word to thee, do as thou wilt."

With that he bent his head and showed his neck all bare, and made as if he had no fear, for he would not be thought afraid.

Then the Green Knight made him ready, and grasped his grim weapon to smite Gawain. With all his force he bore it aloft with a mighty feint of slaying him: had it fallen as 20 straight as he aimed, he who was ever doughty of deed had been slain by the blow. But Gawain swerved aside as the axe came gliding down to slay him as he stood, and shrank a little with the shoulders, for the sharp iron. The other heaved up the blade and rebuked the prince with many 25 proud words:

"Thou art not Gawain," he said, "who is held so valiant, that never feared he man by hill or vale, but thou shrinkest for fear ere thou feelest hurt. Such cowardice did I never hear of Gawain! Neither did I flinch from thy blow, nor 30 make strife in King Arthur's hall. My head fell to my feet, and yet I fled not; but thou didst wax faint of heart ere any harm befell. Wherefore must I be deemed the braver knight."

Quoth Gawain, "I shrank once, but so will I no more; 35 though if my head fall on the stones I cannot replace it. But haste, Sir Knight, by thy faith, and bring me to the point, deal me my destiny, and do it out of hand; for I will stand thee a stroke and move no more till thine axe have hit me- my troth on it."

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"Have at thee, then," quoth the other, and heaved aloft the axe with fierce mien, as if he were mad. He struck at him fiercely but wounded him not, withholding his hand ere it might strike him.

Gawain abode the stroke, and flinched in no limb, but 45 stood still as a stone or a stump of a tree that is fast rooted in the rocky ground with a hundred roots.

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