Trade agreements almost identical in character and formulated in practically the same manner, exist in numerous other industries. Such agreements made by labor organizations have been rigidly and strictly maintained, even at the sacrifice of temporary advantages. Employers as well as workmen have shown a well-defined tendency to live up to the spirit of the agreement and not to bind themselves solely by its letter.

The advantage of the trade agreement, apart from its democratic character and its recognition of the rights and obligations of both sides, is the knowledge which it gives to employer and workman of the conditions under which labor is performed and the manner in which the industry is conducted. Before the era of trade agreements, the workmen were wont to cxaggerate the profits of the employers and to believe, frequently without cause, that they were being exploited. The employers, on the other hand, often failed to realize the effect upon the wages of the workmen of rising prices and increased cost of living and were liable to obtain from their foremen or others a false idea of the conditions under which their employees lived. There was often a feeling of superiority over the workmen and their representatives, which, as a result of the trade agreements, is now being obliterated. Both sides enter the convention with the hope of securing a rea

their disagreement it shall be referred to the Superintendent of the Company and the President of the miners' local executive board, where such exists, and shall they fail to adjust it-and in all other cases-it shall be referred to the Superintendent of the Company and the miners' president of the sub-district; and, should they fail to adjust it. it shall be referred in writing to the officials of the company concerned and the State officials of the U. M. W. of A., for adjustment; and, in all such cases, the miners and mine laborers and parties involved must continue at work pending an investigation an 1 adjustment, until a final decision is reached in the manner above set forth.

“(13 c) If any day men refuse to continue at work because of a grievance which has, or has not been taken up for adjustment in the manner provided herein, and such action shall seem likely to impede the operation of the mine, the pit committee shall immediately furnish a man or men to take such vacant place or places, at the scale rate, in order that the mine may continue at work; and it shall be the duty of any member, or members, of the United Mine Workers, who may be called upon by the pit boss, or pit committee, to immediately take the place or places assigned to him or them in pursuance hereof.

sonable settlement, and any proposition made by either side is given a respectful hearing.

Trade agreements are a matter of business. The representatives of the employers do not desire to pay higher wages than are necessary, and the workmen do not wish to take smaller wages than they must. To this very fact, that the two parties meet upon the plane of business, it is due that the best results are obtained. The attitude of mind which dictates the making of the ordinary business contracts prevails in the formulation of trade agreements. Instead of a loose, verbal arrangement, the trade agreement is usually a written document, stating in precise terms its various provisions, so that there is little possibility of error. Moreover, for such difficulties as arise in interpretation, a system of arbitration is usually provided. Trade agreements thus obviate hundreds of little misunderstandings which might otherwise lead to recrimination and to strikes and lockouts. In the course of a few years of experience, therefore, the trade agreements become fixed upon a settled basis, and their general provisions become universally known.

The difficulties, dangers, and misunderstandings which trade agreements obviate may be seen from a study of the joint conventions in which these agreements are formulated. It usually happens that during the first few days, the radical speakers on both sides make extravagant claims or give utterance to more or less violent speeches, so that the two interests appear absolutely irreconcilable. As the convention progresses, however, the conservative men on both sides gradually approach a common understanding, and by the time the matter is referred to the scale committee, the dif- ¦ ferences of opinion have been minimized, and a general agreement is almost invariably reached. In the United Mine Workers' conventions, the agreement recommended by the scale committee, which is a small committee representing the miners and operators of the various states and appointed by the two sides, is referred to the general convention, the miners and operators voting by states. In the past the reports of the scale committee have been unanimously adopted in every instance. It does not, of course, fol

low, nor is it true, that every man or even the men of every district believe that the provisions are what they should be; but in view of all the circumstances, each man and each district is willing to make certain concessions, and a satisfactory arrangement based upon mutual compromises is made and adhered to.

It must not be supposed that the trade agreement will prevent all strikes. It will undoubtedly minimize these industrial conflicts, by obviating misunderstandings, by showing each side the position of the other, by creating a more friendly feeling between employers and employees, and finally by making strikes and lockouts, when they do occur, so wide-spread, general, and expensive, that their recurrence will be avoided. The fact that failure to reach an agreement would result either in a great strike or a general lockout, impels each side to respect the reasonable demands of the other. If it were not for that possibility, the more radical and uncompromising elements could not be induced to forego their claims. With each new agreement, however, both sides become more conservative and more willing to sacrifice a part of their demands, and with each passing year, the industries in which trade agreements prevail become established on a firmer and more permanent foundation of peace.

THE COAL STRIKE OF 1902.-THE ADVENT OF THE GREAT RAILROAD CORPORATIONS.

The Strike of 1902 a Landmark in the History of Labor. Importance of ConflictEnormous Interests Involved. The Strike an Incident in a Struggle of Two Genera tions. History of Labor in the Anthracite Regions. Early Equality. Deep Mining and Monopoly. Coal and the Civil War. "The Good Old Times" of Oppression. The Extinction of the Old Union. The Advent of the Great Railroad Corporations. The Influx of New Races. A Surplus of Labor. Work and Pay Insecure. The Elastic Ton. The Car of Live Oak. Exactions and Deductions. The Docking Grievance. One Dollar Powder at $2.75. Company Stores. Exorbitant Prices. Company Houses. The Markle Evictions. Competition at the Expense of the Miner.

THE

struggle of labor to secure control of itself and to better its conditions is a slow, incessant, upward movement. The contest is fought out, not by a few brilliant strikes or by the sudden emergence of a few great leaders, but by slow upbuilding forces acting upon vast bodies of men and giving to them increased confidence and an increased sense of solidarity and brotherliness. However, at infrequent intervals events occur of startling or dramatic nature, which, fastening upon the working classes the attention of the whole community, aid and contribute to the furtherance of the labor movement.

An event of this nature was the Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902. This strike in point of the number of men engaged, the length of the contest, the determination with which it was fought out, and the losses which it entailed upon both parties, and, unfortunately, upon the general public, stands out prominently in the history of labor conflicts. At a signal almost one hundred and fifty thousand men and boys dropped their tools, and during a period of over five months, despite the pangs of hunger, despite temptations to desert the cause, none but an inconsiderable minority returned to work,

The contest was memorable also for the enormous strength of the associated corporations opposing the mineworkers. The railroad and mining companies and their financial backers represented a capital of hundreds of millions, if not of billions of dollars. The financial losses resulting from this strike were such as to make it an object lesson in the costliness of labor conflicts. It was estimated by the Anthracite Coal Strike Commission that the loss to railroads and coal companies in reduced freight and coal receipts was not less than $74,000,000, and the loss in wages to the mine workers not less than $25,000,000, the total loss being placed by the Commission at the enormous sum of $99,000,000. The coal strike of 1902 was finally memorable for the great hardships which it entailed upon the public and for the resolute intervention of the President of the United States, with the settlement of the strike as a direct consequence.

The strike was, however, rightly considered, not an event in itself, but merely an incident in a great drama which has been going on for over fifty years. During the last two generations a slow, stubborn contest has been waged by labor in the anthracite coal fields against the ever-growing power of monopoly and the strike of 1902 was but the culmination of a development lasting through three-fourths of a century.

Although anthracite coal began to be shipped to the seaboard during the War of 1812, its production was, until 1850, extremely slight. At that time the business of mining hard coal was unimportant, and the number of miners, only about six or eight thousand. The veins were largely outcropping or were easy to reach, the amount of necessary capital was small, and wages were low and employment irregular. There was no monopoly of the mines, no connection between transportation and mining companies, and no labor problem in the modern sense of the word.

During the period from 1850 to 1860, however, despite setbacks and hard times, the coal mining industry grew rapidly, and after the breaking out of the Civil War, the industry became extremely profitable. During the years from 1861 to 1865 the coal miners for the first and only time in