18 in many places a kind of preliminary school," where pupils are received, in order to determine whether they are fit to become candidates to be candidates." If, from any failure of body or mind, one is here pronounced incompetent to teach, and dismissed at the close of his proba tionary term of six months, he is thus prevented from ever entering the Teachers' Seminary. Or if he goes on into this school, he has again to stand the test of a more severe examination after his three years' course of study. Saying nothing of such strictness as this, we are sure there has been with us too much laxness in this matter.

It is a failure in just these two points which we have noted, that has caused a deep-seated prejudice against Normal Schools in the minds of many of the community. Some of the States may have always had worthy men at the head of their schools of this class; but we know of one, at least, the Principal of whose Normal School, while he is esteemed as a very good man, is far from commanding respect for his attainments. It is of no use to parade the names of any such on the pages of educational journals, nor to dub superficial Normal School teachers with the title of "Professors;" the better portion of the public soon detect the empty sound. Again, we are not the only ones who have met with graduates of Normal Schools whose want of knowledge has been as evident as their self-conceit has been disgusting. These are they who, from their

talk, seem to think that all the wisdom of the world is centered in some Nemal School; and when we associate their idea of wisdom with the fact of their ignorance, what wonder that the Normal School is brought into disrepute? Now we do not think there is any thing in the system necessarily tending to foster this self-conceit; we only say that such persons, male or female, should never be allowed to graduate. The evil, in a measure, works its own cure, for such superficiality generally soon spends itself, and teaching is abandoned; yet even in this case, the reputation of the Normal School is injured, and the profession of teaching thought less of.

We consider the Normal School system an effective way of training Common-School teachers for their work, and the only effective way which has yet been discovered. Horace Mann, at the conclusion of his term of office as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, on looking back over the special instrumentalities used for twelve years to improve the Common Schools of that State, says: "I can not refrain from assigning the first place, in adaptedness and in efficiency, to our State Normal. Schools." And the experienced visitors of one of the best Normal Schools in the country, in their last report, say: "After having shared in the benefits of the system for more than a quarter of a century, the policy of maintaining it may be considered as settled. It only remains to make it as perfect as the experience and observation of its friends may enable them to do." From this we have no wish to dissent; and any strictures we may have made have been only to the same end. The great need

is of more thoroughness in education. Teachers are to be better qualified for their work; scholars are to be made to understand that they must study. Nor is there less call for all this in our higher schools, and, alas! in many of our colleges. When teachers, from highest to lowest, shall not be permitted to take their places before good evidence is given of their competency, and when such inducement of large and permanent remuneration shall be offered, as to draw men of decided talent, who wish also to secure a respectable livelihood, then teaching shall be established as a profession, and the best interests of education shall rapidly advance.

THE

AEROSTATION.

EARLY ATTEMPTS.

HE earliest aerostatic attempts on record were imitations of the flying apparatus of birds. Archytas of Tarentum, a Pythagorean, is said to have constructed an automatic pigeon which could fly. In the thirteenth century a citizen of Bologna flew from the mountains of Bologna to the river Reno, and was so unfortunate as to sustain no injury ; for he thus drew upon himself the wrath of the Inquisition, which pronounced him in league with the devil, and put him to death. In 1742 the Marquis de Bacqueville advertised that on a certain day he would fly from his house on the Quai des Theatins to the Tuileries. He actually accomplished more than half the distance, when, losing his strength and being no longer able to use his wings, he fell into the Seine, where he struck a floating laundry and broke his leg.

BALLOONING.

The first enunciation of the principles on which aerial navigation must depend was by Roger Bacon, in the twelfth century. This indefatigable student had discovered that air possesses weight, and he therefore conceived that if a hollow globe of thin brass were filled with "liquid fire or ethereal air" it would float in the atmosphere as a hollow vessel floats upon water. To what he referred by liquid fire and ethereal air can not be determined; but these are generally known as alchemistic terms for rarefied air. But Bacon made no attempt to sustain his theory. It therefore fell into oblivion, and we hear of no efforts in this direction until the middle of the eighteenth century, when Cavallo experimented rather unsuccessfully with hydrogen.

In 1782, Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, wealthy paper manufacturers at Annonay, noting that clouds and smoke rise in the air, concluded that a bag, made of light material, would also rise if inflated with smoke or

some similarly expanded substance. They therefore made a small balloon,* of fine paper, and filled it with rarefied air by a fire of chopped wool and straw kindled underneath. When fully inflated, the apparatus rose with such ease that the brothers were encouraged to exhibit the discovery on a much larger scale. On this occasion a linen bag, twenty-five feet in diameter, was used. It rose rapidly to a height of one thousand feet, and, after some time, fell at a distance of three miles from its starting -point. The discovery now attracted the attention of the French Academy, at whose request the brothers went to Paris, and there constructed a new balloon, seventy-four feet by forty-one, elegantly ornamented, and weighing one thousand pounds. When released from the ropes, this, with a load of five hundred pounds, reached an elevation of one thousand five hundred feet, where, unfortunately, a gust of wind overturned it, and caused such material injury that a new machine was necessary for further experiments.

The investigations of the French Academy appeared to prove that man could, by means of the new discovery, navigate the atmosphere; and it was not long before persons of sufficient daring were found to undertake aerial voyages. Montgolfier having offered to make a balloon of more durable texture, M. Pilatre de Rozier consented to be the first aeronaut. The new machine was seventy-four feet by forty-eight, weighed about one thousand two hundred pounds, and was ornamented with the zodiacal signs and the royal insignia. In this M. Pilatre made several ascensions, and on one occasion, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes, attained a height of three thousand feet, and descended about five miles from Paris.

HYDROGEN GAS EMPLOYED.

Ascensions in the Montgolfier balloons were always dangerous, and were never very extensive. To remedy these defects, Dr. Black recommended hydrogen as a substitute for rarefied air. Acting upon his suggestions, the French Academy employed Messrs. Roberts to construct, under the supervision of Prof. Charles, a silken balloon, thirteen feet in diameter. When set free, this almost instantly attained a height of three thousand feet, and, after remaining suspended for three quarters of an hour, descended fifteen miles from Paris. This experiment was so successful, that a larger balloon, of twenty-seven feet diameter, was immediately made. In this, on December 1st; 1785, Prof. Charles with M. Roberts ascended six thousand feet, and, after an absence of one hour and three-quarters, descended twenty-seven miles from Paris. Here M. Roberts left the car, and, there being still some ascensive power, Prof. Charles reascended, rising almost immediately nine thousand feet, and ultimately, by throwing over ballast, ten thousand feet. When he left the surface

So called from its resemblance to a chemical instrument then much used.

the thermometer stood at 57° F., but in ten minutes it sank to 21°.` When he started the sun had set, but when he attained the extreme height it was again visible. "I was," he said, "the only illuminated object, all the rest of nature being plunged in darkness." This ascension is important, as it first proved the existence of counter-currents in the atmosphere.

In the same year M. Blanchard, with Dr. Jeffries, an American physician, crossed from Dover to Calais in two hours and one-half. The voyagers were several times in great danger, but especially when nearing the French coast. They were met with great consideration, and M. Blanchard received twelve thousand livres from the king. M. Pilatre de Rozier attempted to rival Blanchard by crossing in the opposite direction. In order to avoid the dangers encountered by the latter, he fastened a small Montgolfier balloon to the car. Scarcely had he risen three thousand feet, when the upper balloon took fire from the lower: a fearful explosion followed, and the aeronaut was soon afterwards found in a fearfully mangled condition. This was the first fatal accident-there have been many since.

Previous to 1821 few aerial voyages were made. The manufacture of hydrogen was expensive, and balloons were so clumsily constructed that none but foolhardy men would risk their lives in them. In that year Mr. Green, who during his life made more than two hundred ascensions, conceived that light carburetted hydrogen, or illuminating gas, would answer equally well, and be far less expensive. His experiments were successful, and gave a wonderful impetus to the science.

PARACHUTES.

It has been long known that an umbrella held over the head greatly retards the rate of falling, and that a contrivance of the sort has been much used by vaulters in the East. The disaster to M. Pilatre led M. Blanchard to experiment with an umbrella-shaped parachute, or "guard in falling." To this he attached a dog, which, though dropped from a great height, reached the ground unhurt. In 1802 M. Garnerin descended safely from an immense elevation by aid of a parachute twenty-three feet in diameter. In 1837 Mr. Cocking attempted a descent in a peculiar parachute of his own invention, one hundred and seven feet in circumference, but was killed, the apparatus being too feebly constructed. Owing to an impression fast gaining ground among aeronauts, that, in bursting, the balloon itself forms a parachute, these protectors are seldom used. Mr. Wise, one of the most intrepid voyagers, has twice tested this theory. On the first occasion the balloon burst at the height of eleven thousand feet, and, immediately assuming the umbrella shape, descended at a uniform rate of speed. At the second trial the mass of the balloon collected on the side, and threatened destruction to the voyager. It, however, "caught the wind as a sail," and descended uniformly.

SENSATIONS OF AERONAUTS.

In the early days of ballooning, when ascensions were the privilege of few, aeronauts saw strange sights and experienced peculiar sensations. One old voyager reported that birds, when dropped from a balloon, fly round for a few minutes as though bewildered, and then return. The truth is, birds drop vertically until they distinguish some object, after which they descend in a spiral. Another asserted that, after he rose to a great height, his head became so small that his hat fell down over his face. Per contra, another philosopher said that his head became so large as to burst open his hat. Of the two, we prefer the latter account, as more in accordance with probability. Perhaps the most astonishing experience on record is that of a scientific man, well advanced in years, who took a lonely voyage to a great elevation. His wrinkled face and hands filled out, and appeared to regain the freshness and beauty of youth. Unfortunately, the rejuvenation disappeared as he descended to denser strata, and the elixir of life remains undiscovered.

The best description of an aeronaut's sensations is that of Mr. Glaisher, the English meteorologist, whose late ascensions have rendered his name familiar to us all. "On the 5th of September, 1862, at one o'clock P. M., the ascension commenced. They reached two miles in height at twentyone minutes past one o'clock, and reached the fifth mile ten minutes before two, when the thermometer had fallen to 2° F. Up to this time Mr. Glaisher had taken observations with comfort; soon, however, both observers breathed with difficulty, their sight became dim, and their hands almost useless, so as to be unable to write. Mr. Glaisher became insensible, and Mr. Coxwell felt that insensibility was coming over himself. Becoming anxious to open the valve, he found his hands failed him, and he instantly seized the line between his teeth and pulled the valve two or three times, until the balloon began to descend. In the course of a few minutes Mr. Glaisher revived, and by the time he reached the earth his faintness had entirely disappeared." During this extraordinary voyage, in comparison with which all others sink into utter insignificance, the aeronauts must have attained the altitude of six miles.

UTILITY OF THE SCIENCE.

Thus far aerostation has proved of little utility. Advantage has been taken of it to solve meteorological questions, but the results have not equalled the expectations. The oscillatory motion of the balloon renders delicate experimentation impossible, and, after passing a height of four miles, the personal distress of the observer is so great, that careful investigation is entirely out of the question. During the last decade of the eighteenth century the French government maintained a corps of balloonists in connection with the army. In June, 1794, just before the battle of