and at that time there was a decided pause in the work upon the tomb, as other thoughts had taken up the mind of the Pope. Indeed, his return to Rome was followed immediately by the commencement of the painting upon the vault of the Sistine Chapel. This work as we have it is much the most important piece of mural painting of the modern world, for it occupies the whole vaulted room, 133 feet long and 45 feet wide, and is one continuous and unbroken composition containing hundreds of figures, life-size, of heroic size, and colossal, and done in pure fresco, except as it has been retouched in places, either by the artist himself or in later times, in what is called dry fresco — that is to say, the colors laid upon the dry plaster. There is this marked characteristic of the painting that it has no landscape backgrounds except in the small compartments devoted to The Deluge and The Temptation, nor any other accessories as of costume, arms, buildings and the like, but is everywhere a simple architectural composition of painted pedestals and corbels seeming to carry figures which themselves are painted in the most abstract waystudies of the human form simply dressed and having no artistic interest other than that. It has generally been considered that the paintings draw their only importance from the astonishing power of the draughtsmanship and the great composition of abstract lines; but a more careful consideration of what they were before their partial defacement by the smoke of canIdles and the injuries and repairs which they have received, shows that the work is one of interest as to color composition as well. Michelangelo has never shown himself to be a colorist in the sense in which Correggio and the great Venetians were colorists, but then the medium in which he painted was fresco, that is, painting upon wet plaster, which does not lend itself to elaborate combinations of warm and profuse coloring-its tendency is always toward pale combinations and the expression of delicately modulated form rather than of chromatic splendor. It is not, however, intelligent criticism to say that these paintings are the work of a sculptor taken rudely from the practice of his own art. On the other hand, it is quite unreasonable to say, as some English critics have said, that the turning of Michelangelo to sculpture had been unfortunate, as depriving us of the greatest of Christian religious painters while giving us only a melodramatic sculptor. The truth is that this artist is the most perfect exemplar of that way of treating all fine art, of which form alone (pure and abstract and almost separated from its usual purpose, as that of description and narrative), is the subject studied and gives the effect sought. Everything else truth of anatomy, expression of face, energy of pose and of apparent movement

is subordinated to the one important thing, the getting of form which would be splendid in the artist's eyes. If, then, we have to regret a frequent excessiveness and extravagance of design, it can only be said that the extraordinary energy and force of the man, driving him on to undertake more than mortal man could achieve even had he been (as Michelangelo was not) left to pursue his own course in peace, resulted as of necessity in frequent exaggeration in the very desire to give vigor and as yet untried combinations of form as

shown in the human body posed singly or in elaborate groups.

After 1513, when Julius II died, Michelangelo_undertook a façade for the church of Saint Lorenzo in Florence. This front was never finished; but not long after he began the building of a new sacristy for this church, in which square room, very finely adorned with classical architectural forms, are the two remarkable tombs of the princes Lorenzo and Giuliano dei Medici. These monuments have each a seated statue of the prince in question, raised high above the sarcophagus; and on the lid of the sarcophagus two colossal reclining figures, in each case one man and one woman. The sculptures are not all completed. The extraordinary power of their modeling has made these monuments very famous in the modern world.

About 1535 Michelangelo settled finally in Rome, and from that time until his death was very much occupied as an architect in connection with the great church of Saint Peter. The building had been going on for many years, and different architects had successively changed the design, so that Michelangelo took up the work at that point where it became necessary to roof the central mass. This he did by means of the famous cupola which dominates the city of Rome and the country around, although the rounded shell of stone itself was not erected during his lifetime.

As an architect Michelangelo was not, on the whole, beneficial to Italy or to the art of the 16th century, because he had never, as a youth, studied construction or the use of details, and because his almost exclusive devotion to more elaborate and organic forms than those possible to architectural masses, prevented his designing such features as frontons and consols with gravity and simplicity. The architecture inspired by him, and more especially that produced by his immediate successors, ran to extravagance; and the worst period of Italian decorative art was to follow upon his own epoch of work. The sculpture of his later years is much less important and much less in quantity than might have been expected; but the work upon the church occupied his energies, and in 1535 he was appointed by Pope Paul III, architect, sculptor and painter to the papal palace, and he began work immediately upon the east wall of the Sistine Chapel. Here he painted that prodigious 'Last Judgment filling all the wall above the altar, including the lunette, and up to the nearly semi-circular vault. The picture is, like the ceiling paintings, entirely a study of the human body in vigorous action, and in highly studied pose. As a work of color, or even of light and shade, it is almost unrecognizable for what it was, as the smoke of the candles on the altar has caused very great changes in color, and has led to repainting, and because of certain painted additions made in the next century in order to disguise the complete nudity of the figures.

Throughout his life Michelangelo had been a writer of verse, and it is known that important sonnets of his were left by him. These, however, were edited in a destructive manner by his nephew, so much so that we have at the present day no certain knowledge, even, of what the poems were as they left Michelangelo's hand. This part of his intellectual life has been

treated with great thoroughness by John Addington Symonds in his life of the artist (1892); and on which Walter Pater writes fascinatingly in 'The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry) (1912). The frescoes of the Sistine Chapel have been peculiarly the study of Heath Wilson who, about the middle of the 19th century, had a scaffolding erected in the chapel and studied the paintings inch by inch, and who recorded his observations in a valuable book (1876). Apart from these two books and the life by Harford (1857), the best book on Michelangelo is the volume of the Gazette de Beaux-Arts,' published in 1876. This volume contains papers by the sculptor, Eugène Guillaume, the architect, Charles Garnier, and the competent writers, Charles Blanc, Paul Mantz, A. Mézières and Anatole de Montaiglon. Karl Frey's 'Michaelagniolo Buonarrotti' publication of which began in 1907, and Thode's 'Michelangelo und das Ende der Renaissance> (1902-12), are among recent authoritative studies.

RUSSELL STURGIS,

MICHELANGELO, Life of. Herman Grimm's Life of Michelangelo, apart from its value as the record of a notable life, is one of the masterpieces of German prose. Written at a time when photographic illustrations were unknown (it was published in 1860) and when the expense of travel barred Italy to most young artists, its purpose was to give them a vivid and realizable word-picture of the sculptures, paintings and architectural creations of the most universal of all artists, and at the same time to show how constructive a part art can play in the spiritual life of a nation when artists are large enough for leadership.

It is not only a biography; it is a history of the Italian Renaissance with Michelangelo as the central figure. During the 80 years of his life Italian art knew Donatello, Ghirlandajo, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian and Raphael; Savanarola lived and died praying for the soul of Florence; the Popes Borgias, Farneses, Medicis exerted their power for good and ill in the world of the sword as well as the world of the spirit; the Medicis fought for the temporal mastery of Florence and conquered, fought and lost again. In every part of this seething political, religious and artistic life Michelangelo had his share. His life and that of Florence ran parallel lines. The star of Florence had barely risen when Michelangelo sculptured his first marbles in the garden of the Medicis; it had set, never to rise again, before his body was brought back for burial from the Rome which had been his refuge when Florence deserted her tradition of freedom.

It is the achievement of Herman Grimm that which places this biography with Boswell's Life of Johnson and the Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini - that he has known how to make the city and the times live equally with the man whom he portrays, and how to give form and color to the figures of the lesser men and women in his picture. Fine illustrations heighten the value and the interest of new editions, both in the original and in the translation by Miss Bunnett.

MICHELET, Jules, zhül mesh-la. French historian: b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798; d. Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874. His father was an unsuccessful VOL. 192

printer, and his boyhood was one of poverty and want. He was educated at the Lycée Charlemagne and in 1821 became a professor at the College Rollin. After the revolution of 1830 he was appointed chief of the historical section in the Archives, and in 1838 professor of history at the Collège de France. He lost his offices by his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III (1851) and thereafter devoted himself to his busy literary labors. His 'Histoire de France' (18 vols. 1833-67; new ed. 19 vols. 1879) is among the monumental productions of historical composition, and definitely established his fame. His 'Histoire de la Révolution' (1847-53; new ed. 1889) is a splendid specimen of eloquent writing, but hardly a great history. In all his historical writing Michelet has been criticized for unduly subordinating historical values to dramatic effect and for permitting his prejudices to destroy his perspective. But his descriptions are remarkably vivid, and his rendering of certain episodes is unsurpassed. Among his further writings are 'Précis de l'histoire moderne (1827); Histoire romaine (1831); several volumes of impressions of nature 'L'Oiseau' (1856), L'Insecte' (1857), 'Z'Amowe (1859); La Mer (1861); La Montagne) (1868); and several volumes of polemics. Consult 'Lives' or studies by brushes (1898); Corréard' (1886); Monot' (1905); and Jules Simon' (1886).

MICHELET, Karl Ludwig, kärl lood'vig mēshě-la, German philosopher: b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801; d. 16 Dec. 1893. He was graduated from the University of Berlin in 1824, and in 1829 was appointed to the professorship of philology and philosophy in the French gymnasium, which he held for 25 years. In 1829 he also became professor of philosophy in the University of Berlin. He devoted himself especially to the doctrines of Aristotle and published 'Die Ethik des Aristoteles (1827), an edition of the Nicomachean ethic with Latin' commentary (1829-33), and a memoir entitled Examen critique du livre d'Aristotle, intitulé Métaphysique (1836), which was crowned by the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. From 1832 to 1842 he was engaged as one of the editors of Hegel's works, in illustration of whose system he wrote Geschichte der letzten Systeme der Philosophie in Deutschland von Kant bis Hegel' (1837-39); 'Entwickelungsgeschichte der neuesten Deutschen Philosophie' (1843); and a controversial dissertation, Schelling und Hegel' (1839). His own standpoint and tendency are most decisively shown in his Vorlesungen über die Persönlichkeit Gottes und die Unsterblichkeit der Seele, oder die ewige Persönlichkeit des Geistes (1841); and 'Die Epiphanie der ewigen Persönlichkeit des Geistes (1844-52).

MICHELL, mich'ěl, John, English physicist, geologist and astronomer: b. about 1724; d. Thornhill, Yorkshire, 29 April 1793. He was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge, became a Fellow there, and in 1762 was made professor of geology. From 1767 until his death he was rector at Thornhill. His invention of the torsion balance shortly before his death preceded that of Coulomb, and was used by Henry Cavendish in his famous experiment determining the mean density of the earth.

Michell also described a method of making magnets, A Treatise of Artificial Magnets, in which is shown an easy and expeditious method of making them superior to the best natural ones' (1750). He also made valuable contributions to the knowledge of astronomy. Author of 'Conjectures Concerning the Cause and Observations upon the Phenomena of Earthquakes (1760); A Recommendation of Hadley's Quadrant for Surveying) (1765); 'Proposal of a Method for Measuring Degrees of Longitude upon the Parallels of the Equator' (1766); An Inquiry into the Probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars' (1767); On the Twinkling of Fixed Stars) (1767); On the Means of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, etc., of the Fixed Stars' (1784);

etc.

MICHELL, John Henry, Australian mathematician: b. 19th century. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later became a Fellow there. He became assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Melbourne and is known for his researches in mathematical physics. He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1902. Author of "Theory of Free Stream Lines (1890); The Highest Waves in Water' (1893); 'The Wave Resistance of a Ship' (1898); The Stress in the Web of a Plate Girder (1900); Theory of Uniformly Loaded Beams (1900); etc.

MICHELOZZO, mē’kě-lõt'sō, Michelozzi, Italian architect and sculptor: b. Florence, 1391 or 1396; d. there, 1472. He studied sculpture under Donatello and architecture under Brunelleschi, and was a protégé of Cosimo dei Medici. He worked in silver, bronze and marble as a sculptor and attained a high reputation for his work; but his fame rests principally upon his achievements as an architect, his name ranking among the foremost of the famous Florentine architects of the 15th century. He executed the silver statue of Saint John in the Duomo, Florence, and also the bronze statue of that saint in the Bargello, and the terra cotta figure of him in the court of the church of the Annunziata, Florence. Much of his work as a sculptor was done with Donatello and it is difficult to establish its identity. He designed the library of San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice, as well as other buildings there, during the period when he shared the exile of his patron, Cosimo dei Medici. He designed the Riccardi Palace in Florence for the Medici, and his skill as an engineer was attested by his repairing and partially rebuilding the Palazzo Vecchio, which was falling to ruin. He also undertook the repairs and remodeling of the monastery of San Marco at Florence when it was given to the Dominicans of Fiesole by the Medici. He designed the Medici summer villa at Careggi, the pilgrim's guest-house, Jerusalem, the Medici palace at Fiesole and many other buildings. His style effected a combination of early Italian Gothic and the classical type with marvelous simplicity and lightness, withal stateliness of line. Consult Müntz, E., 'Histoire de l'Art pendant in Renaissance, Italie' (1889); Wolf, F., 'Michelozzo di Bartolommeo' (1900).

MICHELS, Robert, German sociologist: b. Cologne, 9 Jan, 1876. He studied at the universities of Paris, Munich, Leipzig and Halle,

and in 1905 became docent at the University of Brussels. In 1907 he was appointed teacher of economics at the University of Turin, later becoming professor of that subject. He accepted the chair of economics and statistics at Bazel in 1913. He has specialized in Italian sociological problems and history and has written extensively, his work appearing in Hungarian, Dutch, German, French and Italian. Author of Brautstandsmoral' (1903); Borghesia e proletariato nel movimento Socialisto italiano (1907); 'Zur soziologie des Parteiwesens' (1910); 'Probleme der Sozial-philosophie (1914), etc.

MICHELSON, Albert Abraham, American physicist: b. Strelno, Posen, Germany, 19 Dec. 1852. He came to the United States when a boy; was graduated at the United States Naval Academy in 1873; took graduate courses in physics in Berlin and Heidelberg and in Paris; and resigned from the navy in 1883 to become professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. From 1889 to 1892 he was professor of physics at Clark University, and since 1892 has been head of the department of physics in the University of Chicago. He was president of the American Physical Society in 1901, and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1910. His experiments at the Naval Academy in 1879 and at Cleveland in 1882 gave new figures for the velocity of light in vacuo.. He made careful studies of the relative motion of ether and matter, and apparently proved that, though in general ether may have relative motion, within building walls, etc., it partakes of the motion of materials. About the same date (1886-87) his inferential refractometer made it possible to use wave-lengths of light as a measuring unit; this discovery was put to concrete use by his measuring a metre in terms of cadmium light wave-length; this was done for the Paris International Bureau of Weights and Measures, with the result that the metre is no longer an arbitrary unit, since the original metrelong bar so carefully preserved in Paris could easily be replaced at any time now that its length is known in terms of other units. This interferometer not only determines wavelengths of red, green and blue cadmium light, but separates lines less than one thousandth metre apart, and hence is a very delicate dividing machine. The echelon spectroscope, an arrangement of glass plates of equal thickness, but of surface area varying in arithmetical progression, was invented by Michelson in 1898; it is valuable for the study of the Zeeman effect. In 1907 he was awarded the Nobel prize in physics. He is the author of 'Light Waves and their Uses' (1903).

MICHIE, mik'i, Peter Smith, American military engineer and author: b. Brechin, Scotland, 24 March 1839; d. West Point, N. Y., 16 Feb. 1901. He came to the United States when a child and lived in Cincinnati. He was graduated at West Point in 1863 and was assigned to the engineering corps with rank of first lieutenant. He served as assistant engineer in the operations around Charleston in 1863-64 and as chief engineer of the districts in the Department of the South. In 1864 he was transferred to the Army of the James, served in the operations against Richmond and was present at Ap