maintain its credit; but of this debt there still remained at the beginning of the Civil War $2,316,328. The war debt increased the amount to $3,880,399. It was not wholly liqui dated until a short time previous to 1900. A loan of $500,000, made in 1898 on account of the war with Spain, has also been paid. The constitution of 1909 provides that no debt shall be contracted by the State in excess of $250,000, except to suppress insurrection or repel invasion.

In 1899 the assessed valuation of the State was $968,189,087; in the current year (1916), the State board of equalization placed the equalized value of the State at $2,800,000,000, which was a cut of $280,000,000 from the estimate of the State tax commission. Of this amount, 29 per cent is assessed to Wayne County ($836,000,000). In addition to a property tax, the State levies certain indirect taxes, which yield about one-tenth of the total revenue, The direct tax is spread by the auditor-general among the various administrative districts,. which levy and collect, at the same time with the State tax, the taxes for the counties, townships, villages, cities and highway labor. The moneys collected for the State are disbursed principally for the expenses of the State government and the maintenance of State institutions, including the State colleges and the University of Michigan. For the year ending 30 June 1916 the State's revenue and expenditures were as follows:

Corrections and Charities.- State penal and charitable institutions are under the Michigan State board of corrections and charities, established in 1871. This is an unpaid board of five members, one of whom is the governor ex officio, who appoints the other four, for a term of eight years; one retires every two years. During the year ending 30 June 1916 the board held 20 meetings, 16 of which were at State institutions, in conference with the local board in immediate control; in general, the local boards consist each of three members appointed by the governor and are unpaid. The oldest penal institution is the State prison at Jackson, established in 1838. In 1885 a branch prison was established at Marquette, in the Upper Peninsula. Minor offenders are sent to the reformatory at Ionia, established in 1877. The total population of all of these is about 2,000. The cost of maintenance is about $300,000 a year, which is about half defrayed by receipts from prison industries. Progress is being made in prison management; the indeterminate sentence has been adopted, and a pardon board of four members, appointed by the governor, reports to him upon all petitions for pardon. Allied to the prisons in nature, is the Industrial School for Boys at Lansing (estab. 1855), and the Industrial Home for Girls at Adrian (estab. 1879), containing together about 1,000 inmates. County superintendents of the poor are required to send all neglected dependent children to the State Public School at Coldwater (opened 1874). The Soldiers' Home at Grand Rapids (estab.

1885) cares for Michigan soldiers of recent wars. The Asylum for the Insane at Kalamazoo was opened in 1859; in 1877 a similar institution was established at Pontiac, and in 1893 at Newberry, in the upper peninsula; there is one also at Traverse City (estab. 1881). These four institutions contain over 4,000 patients. At Ionia was established in 1885 the Asylum for Dangerous and Criminal Insane. At Lapeer is the State Home and Training School for the feeble-minded, and at Wahjamega (Tuscola County) is the Farm Colony for Epileptics; the division between these two classes has been only recently made, both classes having been cared for at Lapeer since 1893. The School for the Deaf and Dumb is at Flint (estab. 1854); the School for the Blind is at Lansing (estab. 1879); these were formerly together at Flint. At Saginaw is maintained an employment institution for the blind (estab. 1903).

Education.-The constitution of 1909 contains (Art. XI, Sec. 1) the well-known clause from the Ordinance of 1787: "Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." At the head of Michigan's school system is the superintendent of public instruction, elected in April of oddnumbered years, for a term of two years; salary $4,000 a year. He is ex officio member and secretary of the State board of education; three other members are elected, one at each biennial spring election, to hold office six years. The board has general supervision of the State normal schools, examines textbooks on the subject of physiology and hygiene offered for use in the public schools, and conducts examinations for teachers' life certificates. In its general outline, Michigan's educational system, which it owes to its first superintendent of public instruction, John D. Pierce (1836-41), has been used as a model in nearly all the western States. Its distinctive features are universal education in common free schools with compulsory attendance, training for teachers in normal schools, and higher education in colleges and a State university. These schools are supported partly from the interest derived from the sale of school and university lands, partly by legislative appropriations. Immediately under the superintendent of public instruction there is now elected in each county a county school commissioner, who, with two county examiners, examines and licenses teachIn some counties there are townships organized as single school districts, which may support a high school in addition to a common school; but, in general, the townships are divided into districts, by a township board of three (two elected school inspectors and the township clerk), who also exercise general supervision; each district is under its own elected board of three members. Most villages and cities support high schools.

ers.

Teachers are trained in four normal schools: the State Normal College at Ypsilanti and three others at Mount Pleasant, Marquette and Kalamazoo. Higher and special education is provided at the Michigan Agricultural College at East Lansing; the Michigan College of Mines at Houghton; and the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. The Agricultural Col

lege is the oldest in the United States (estab. 1850) and is under control of an elected State board of agriculture. The College of Mines (estab. 1885) is under a board appointed by the governor. The University (estab. 1837) is under control of an elected board of regents. Besides the State educational system for higher education there are several denominational colleges, at Albion and Adrian (Methodist), at Hillsdale and Kalamazoo (Baptist), at Olivet (Congregational), at Holland (Dutch Reformed), at Alma (Presbyterian), and at Detroit (Catholic).

SCHOOL STATISTICS FOR YEAR ENDING
JUNE 1918.

History. The Indians who originally occupied Michigan were principally the Ojibwas (Chippewas), the Ottawas and the Potawatomis; minor tribes were the Hurons (Wyandots), and the Sacs and Foxes. In historic times, the Ojibwas have been principally identified with the upper peninsula, the Ottawas and Potawatomis with the Lake Michigan shore of the lower peninsula, and the minor tribes with the region between Saginaw Bay and Detroit.

The first white men to visit Michigan were the missionaries and the explorers and traders, who came from the French settlements of the Saint Lawrence Valley in Canada. The route by which they came, and by which the traffic with the Indians was carried on until the discovery of the waters connecting Lakes Huron and Erie was over the Ottawa River, Lake Nipissing, the French River and the Georgian Bay. Jean Nicolet, in whose honor a bronze tablet was erected on Mackinac Island in 1915, was the first white man to pass through the Straits of Mackinac (1634). He was an agent of Champlain, then governor of Canada, who in the interests of trade sent him to find a passage to the South Sea. Nicolet apparently penetrated as far as central Wisconsin. The Jesuit missionaries followed close upon this lead. In 1641, Fathers Jogues and Raymbault preached to the Ojibwas at Sault Sainte Marie. The first permanent settlements were made by Fathers Dablon and Marquette, in 1668 and 1671, at Sault Sainte Marie and Michilimackinac (Saint Ignac). In 1701, Antoine de la Motte Cadillac (q.v.), who had been commandant of the French fort at Michilimackinac, founded

Detroit. The Treaty of Paris in 1763, closing the struggle between France and Great Britain for possession of the continent, all of Canada, with the Great Lakes region, passed from French dominion; the frontier posts had already been garrisoned with British troops, soon after the capitulation of Montreal, in 1760. The Indians, who were friends of the French, and who underestimated the power of the British, believed that a united and determined resistance could drive the British from the continent, and under the leadership of the great Ottawa chieftain, Pontiac, made a simultaneous attack in 1763 upon the British posts from the Straits of Mackinac to western New York. Fort Mackinac, on the south side of the Straits, was captured, and all, but a few of the garrison massacred. Pontiac himself conducted the siege of Detroit, but unsuccessfully, and finally the Indians were everywhere defeated.

The British held possession of Michigan until the Jay Treaty of 1796, although the Treaty of Paris (1783), closing the War of the Revolution, had ceded it to the United States. Previous to that war the Quebec Act (q.v.) of 1774 applied to the government of Michigan as well as to Canada. The population increased but slightly; a few British merchants and traders came to Detroit, and a few families settled on the shore lands above and below that point. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Henry Hamilton was appointed lieutenantgovernor at Detroit, by whom supplies of tomahawks and scalping knives were distributed liberally among the Indians, and whose reports to General Carleton of the success of scalping expeditions in the settlements sufficiently characterize his administration. The retention of the posts at the close of the war was alleged to be justified on several grounds; among the real reasons was the desire to retain control of the rich fur trade. The policy of giving presents to the Indians was long continued. In 1787 the military force at Detroit was increased by two full regiments, the fortifications were strengthened, and large supplies of presents were distributed among the Indians, which so increased their hostility against the American settlements that the United States Government had to send troops against them; first under General Harmer who was defeated in 1790; then under General St. Clair who was also defeated in 1791; and finally, under Gen. Anthony Wayne, whose force was of sufficient strength to insure victory. On 20 Aug. 1794 Wayne defeated the combined force of British and Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. By the Treaty of Grenville, 3 Aug. 1795, the Indians ceded a large strip of Michigan land, six miles wide and extending from Lake Saint Clair to the Raisin River, also Mackinac Island, Bois Blanc Island, and other important lands. Following these successes came the treaty negotiated by John Jay with Great Britain in 1796, according to a stipulation in which the British garrison was withdrawn from Detroit, 16 June 1796; on 11 July a detachment of United States troops took possession,

One of the earliest acts of the new Federal Government was to organize a territorial government for the Great Lakes region. The "Ordinance of 1787," adopted for the Northwest Territory, provided a government in which

a governor and three judges made laws, to be enforced by these judges as the highest court. It contained a guarantee of religious liberty, a bill of rights, a provision for general education, a declaration against human slavery, and the means of erecting new States from these lands. In 1800 the Territory of Indiana was erected, which included the western half of the Territory of Michigan and the eastern end of the upper peninsula; the remainder of both peninsulas was added in 1802. On 30 June 1805 the whole was separated into two Territories, Indiana and Michigan (the lower peninsula), and the Ordinance of 1787 was made the law of Michigan Territory. In 1800, Michigan's white population was 3,206, which in 10 years increased to 4,762 people, of whom 1,650 were in Detroit. Detroit was the capital. President Jefferson had appointed as governor, William Hull, of Massachusetts, an officer of honorable service in the Revolution, but now of advanced age, and temperamentally unfitted to be the chief officer of a frontier settlement.

In 1807, by the Treaty of Detroit, Hull secured from the Indians the cession of a large area of land in southeastern Michigan; but by 1809 the Indians had begun to realize the serious meaning of the treaty, and to make trouble which he was unable to quiet. The battle of Tippecanoe, 7 Nov. 1811, in which Gen. William Henry Harrison defeated the Indians near Lafayette, Ind., drove them over to the British, and made Michigan the scene of the opening campaign of the War of 1812. In December 1811, Hull went personally to Washington, to beseech Congress to strengthen Michigan's defences, but he unwisely accepted personal command of a force which was much too small for the purpose. In the following war, which was declared against Great Britain, 18 June 1812, Mackinac was captured by the British on 17 July, which Hull deemed decisive as to the control of the Great Lakes. The arrival of British reinforcements before Detroit, under the British General Brock, demanding surrender, together with the threatening possibility of an Indian massacre similar to that at Mackinac in 1763, decided Hull to comply with the British demands (16 Aug. 1812) to the indignation of his soldiers and of the nation. still believed that he might have been able to resist an immediate attack, and that he would have been speedily reinforced; at the time he was court-martialed, and sentenced to be shot, but was pardoned by President Jefferson on account of his honorable record in the Revolution. The immediate result of the surrender was to place the settlements at the mercy of the Indians. On 23 Aug, 1813, following the capture of General Winchester at Frenchtown on the Raisin River, the Indians, with scarcely any restraint from the British General Brock, foully massacred nearly the entire garrison (see FRENCHTOWN, BATTLE OF). The victory of Commodore Perry on Lake Erie (10 Sept. 1813) which made possible that of General Harrison on the river Thames (5 Oct. 1813) restored Michigan to the United States.

It is

On 13 Oct. 1813, Lewis Cass, who had served as a brigadier-general under Harrison, was appointed governor of Michigan Territory, and until 1831, when he was appointed a member of Andrew Jackson's Cabinet, his exceptional talents were used for the upbuilding of the

commonwealth. His intimate knowledge of Indian character was specially useful in weaning the tribes from their British sympathies and gaining their respect for the United States government. By the Indian treaties of 1819 and 1821 he secured the cession of large areas of land adjacent to and including the Saginaw and Grand River valleys. In 1836 the Indians ceded practically all the remaining portion of the Lower Peninsula, and the eastern half of the Upper Peninsula; and before 1840 they had been removed to Western reservations. With the first public land sales at Detroit in 1818, the beginning of steam navigation on the Great Lakes, the opening of an all-water route to the Atlantic seaboard through the Erie Canal in 1825, the settlement of Michigan made rapid strides, especially in the closing years of the Territorial period, which brought the population from 31,639 in 1830 up to 87,273 in 1837.

The admission of Michigan to the Union was delayed by a dispute with Ohio about Michigan's southern boundary. In 1835 the people of Michigan adopted a State constitution, elected a complete set of State officers and later this constitution of 1835 was accepted by Congress without readoption; the original delegate was seated in Congress without re-election, and the original State officers continued to serve without re-election after the formal admission of the State by Congress (26 Jan. 1837). From 1 Nov. 1835 Michigan was de facto a State, though not technically a State in the Union. The boundary question was settled in 1837 in favor of Ohio, when Michigan acquired, as compensation for the loss on the south, the Upper Peninsula, then but little known. At the very outset, the State was seriously crippled by the financial panic of 1837, and the failure of Eastern companies with which the State had placed a $5,000,000 loan for public improvements. The improvement scheme, which involved the building of three trans-peninsular railroads, had to be abandoned, and the debt was not entirely paid until long after the Civil War. The improvements made, mainly on the Michigan Central and the Michigan Southern railroads, were carried on however by private enterprise, the former road being completed to Chicago in 1852. In 1850 a new State constitution was adopted, prohibiting the State to engage in any similar undertaking. In accordance with a provision of the constitution of 1835, the question of the permanent situation of the State capital was taken up by the legislature in 1847, with the result that it was located at Lansing. During the Civil War, Michigan put into the field nearly 100,000 men; among the many who won distinction for service was Gen. George Armstrong Custer (q.v.), leader of the famous Michigan Cavalry Brigade. Michigan's "war governor" was Austin Blair. In this period began the career of Zachariah Chandler, who served three terms as United States senator (1857-75). While Mr. Chandler was in the National Senate, Michigan had seven governors, all but one of whom served two terms.

Since the Civil War, Michigan has gained rapidly in population, wealth and prosperity. Agriculture has continued to be the leading industry in the southern peninsula, and mining in the northern; pine lumbering, in the years immediately following the war, developed to