of power in any region or allow power sites to be held without prompt development. Permits for power development on the National Forests usually run for a term of 50 years, and may be renewed at their expiration upon compliance with regulations then existing. Such permits, while granting liberal terms to applicants, contain ample provision for the protection of public interests.

The total receipts from the National Forests on account of timber sales, grazing fees, and special uses, during the fiscal years 1912, 1913, 1914, and 1915, were as follows: 1912, $2,157,356.57; 1913, $2,391,920.85; 1914, $2,437,710.21; 1915, $2,481,469.35.

It could not be expected, of course, that rugged, inaccessible mountain lands, such as constitute by far the greater part of the National Forests, would soon yield a revenue to the government over and above the cost of administration. Many of the forests are meant to supply the country's future needs, while others are chiefly valuable for watershed protection, which, though of the greatest importance to the people and industries of the country, does not yield the government a return in dollars and cents. In the case of almost every forest, moreover, a great deal of money must be spent for roads, trails, bridges, and telephone lines before the resources can be used. Nevertheless, 44 of the National Forests paid their local operating costs in 1914. Land more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing is excluded from the National Forests, so far as is possible, when the boundaries are drawn. Small tracts of land which cannot be thus excluded are opened to settlement under the Forest Homestead Act of 11 June 1906. Taken as a whole, however, the proportion of land within the forests more valuable for agriculture than for growing timber or other purposes is trifling. The greater part of the really valuable agricultural land within the forests has already been taken up, and most of what there is left has a severe climate and lies at high altitudes, often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. Therefore the chances offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of the forests are far better than in the forests themselves.

Government Investigative and Co-operative Work. Besides administering the National Forest, the Forest Service conducts a number of special investigations relating to the growth and management of forests and their utilization. It studies the characteristics and growth requirements of the principal tree species of the United States, in order to determine how different types of forests should be handled, and also the best methods of forest planting, both for the National Forests and for other parts of the country. At experiment stations maintained in connection with the National Forests, it investigates the scientific problems underlying the management of forests, and the relation of forests to streamflow and climate. It co-operates with the States in studying their forest conditions, with the object of developing forest policies adapted to their needs, and with private owners by furnishing advice concerning the best methods of managing and protecting their forest holdings. It also co-operates with States, under the terms of section 2 of the Weeks Law, in protecting from fire the

forest cover on the watersheds of navigable

streams.

One of the aims of forestry is to see that the products of the forest are put to their best use with the least waste. Through studies of wood uses the Forest Service aids the woodconsuming industries to find the most suitable raw material and to develop methods of utilizing their waste products. It also investigates methods of disposing of wood waste, collects statistics on the price of lumber at the mill and on the market, and studies lumber specifications and grading rules.

To carry out the idea still further, a forest products laboratory is maintained at Madison, Wis., in co-operation with the University of Wisconsin. Here, among other things, the physical, structural, and chemical properties of wood are studied. Studies are also made at the laboratory of seasoning and kiln-drying, preservative treatment, and the use of wood for the production of paper pulp, fibre board, etc., and in the manufacture of alcohol, turpentine, resin, tar, and other chemical products. Besides strictly forest investigations, the Service studies the life history and growth requirements of forage plants, in order that the National Forest ranges may be maintained in the best condition.

Forest Service Organization. The work of the Forest Service is administered by the forester and associate forester, and is organized under the branches of operation, lands, silviculture, research, and grazing. A separate unit is charged with the acquisition of lands in the southern Appalachians and White Mountains under the Weeks Law. The branch of operation has general supervision of the personnel, quarters, equipment, and permanent improvement work on the National Forests. The branch of lands examines and classifies lands within the National Forests to determine their value for forest or other purposes, conducts all work necessary in connection with claims on the National Forests, and assists the chief engineer of the Service in all business connected with the use of National Forest lands for hydroelectric power purposes. The branch of silviculture supervises the planting, sale, and cutting of timber on the National Forests, and co-operates with States in protecting forest lands under section 2 of the Weeks Law. The branch of research has supervision over the investigative work of the Service, including silvicultural studies, studies of State forest conditions, investigations of the lumber and wood-using industries and lumber prices, and the work carried on at the forest products laboratory and the forest experiment stations. The branch of grazing supervises the grazing of livestock upon the national forests, allotting grazing privileges, and dividing the ranges between different owners and classes of stock. It is also charged with the work of improving depleted grazing areas and of co-operating with the Federal and State authorities in the enforcement of stock quarantine regulations.

Lands in the southern Appalachians and White Mountains are being purchased by the National Forest Reservation Commission, in accordance with the Act of 1 March 1911, commonly known as the Weeks Law, which provides for the acquisition of forest land on the watersheds of navigable streams. The Forest Service has been designated as the bureau to

examine and value such lands as may be offered for purchase. Up to 1 July 1916, a total of 706,974 acres had been purchased and 578,753 acres in addition approved for purchase. These lands will be administered as National Forests.

In order to prevent delay and "redtape" in the administration of the National Forests, seven field districts, each containing approximately 26,000,000 acres of government forestland, have been established, with a district forester in charge of each. In each district office, assistant district foresters are in charge of operation, lands, silviculture, and grazing work in that district. Each National Forest (approximately 1,000,000 acres of forest land) is in charge of a forest supervisor, who is the general manager of his forest, planning the work and seeing that it is carried out. On forests where there is a particularly large volume of business the supervisor is assisted by a deputy. Every National Forest is divided into ranger districts (about 200,000 acres) with a district ranger in charge of each. Rangers perform the routine work involved in the supervision of timber sales, grazing, and free use and special use. They also help to build roads, trails, bridges, telephone lines, and other permanent improvements on the forests. For organization for fire protection on the National Forests see FOREST FIRES.

Forestry in the States.-There were many early laws on the statute books of various States aiming at fire protection or the encouragement of tree planting. Permanent State forestry work of importance was not begun, however, until 1885, when New York established a forest commission charged with the organization of a service under technically trained men to administer the State's forest reserve according to the principles of forestry. In the same year there were organized a Forestry Bureau in Ohio and a State Board of Forestry in California, and a forest commissioner was appointed in Colorado; after a brief period, however, and until they were reorganized, in Ohio and California in 1905 and in Colorado in 1911, all these were either discontinued or became inactive through lack of appropriations. In 1895 a commissioner of forestry was appointed in Pennsylvania. Except in New York and Pennsylvania the entrance of the States into the forestry field with permanent organization has been the direct outgrowth of the work of the National government. At the present time 32 of the States have forest departments, 24 employ professional foresters, and practically all have recognized the need of a State forest policy. The appropriations for the yearly support of State forestry departments vary from $500 to approximately $315,000. Some of the objects of State work have been to educate public sentiment regarding the value of State forest resources and the importance of their conservation, to give technical advice to private owners, to develop a systematic fire protective system, to provide planting stock for citizens, to secure the modification of tax systems so as to lessen the burdens of those who plant forests or otherwise endeavor to provide a permanent timber supply, and to establish State forests. The northeastern States have paid most attention apparently to the production of a new forest crop and have encouraged the practice of forestry by private owners to that end. Plant

ing material has been provided, tax laws have been modified in several States, and technically trained foresters employed to give advice to applicants. Fire protection has also been supplied by State action, special attention being given to the protection of young growth. In the far West, the chief interest has been in protecting the vast supplies of mature timber from fire. Fire protection has had first place in the Lake States also, but here more attention is given to young timber than in the West. The South has been comparatively slow in adopting State forestry, though Maryland and North Carolina were among the first to have State foresters. The Weeks Law has greatly stimulated the organization of systematic State fire protective systems. Under this law the Federal government, through the Forest Service, co-operates with individual States in the protection of the watersheds of navigable streams. The Federal government contributes not more than half the cost (nor more than $8,000 in one year) of a State fire protective system established under this law. The government funds are used almost exclusively for the employment of lookouts and patrols. An area of about 13,000,000 acres is guarded at an average cost of about three-fourths of a cent an acre. Twenty-one States have entered into co-operative agreements with the government as follows: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Texas, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. New York maintains a State Preserve of 1,825,882 acres in the Adirondack and Catskill mountains; Pennsylvania has more than 1,000,000 acres of State forest, chiefly in the mountains of the central part of the State; Minnesota has 43,000 acres now in State forests and approximately 1,000,000 acres of school lands which are to be made into State school forests; Wisconsin has a reserve of 400,000 acres; Michigan, 589,000 acres; South Dakota, 75,000 acres (in the Black Hills); New Jersey, 13,720 acres; and New Hampshire, Vermont, California, Connecticut, Indiana, Massachusetts, and Maryland, from 2,000 to 9,000 acres each. The New York "Forest Preserve" is protected from fire, but it is not under forest management because the State Constitution forbids timber cutting on the reservation. The whole central portion of the Adirondack and Catskill mountain regions is protected from fire by a State ranger system. In Pennsylvania the State forests are under forest management, and the State maintains a ranger school at Mont Alto. The following States distribute planting material: Pennsylvania, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, Maryland, Kentucky, Ohio, Kansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, Idaho. In New York citizens are furnished tree seedlings from the State nurseries at cost. Taxes on timbered land may be levied chiefly on yield in Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan.

Towns, cities, and counties, as well as the States, have begun to take an interest in forestry. In many cases it amounts to no more than the employment of a municipal forester whose business is the planting and care of street, roadside, and park trees. A number of them, chiefly in the older and more thickly settled portions of

the country, have acquired forested tracts which they now manage for the protection of the community reservoirs or some other local purpose. There are over 130,000 acres of such forests in the United States, in tracts varying in extent from 40 to 25,000 acres.

Forestry by Private Owners. The first example of professional forest management in the United States was begun in 1891 on the Biltmore Estate of Mr. G. W. Vanderbilt of Asheville, N. C., in a mixed forest of pine and hardwoods. To be sure, a large number of private owners had exercised care in handling their timberlands prior to this date. In some cases it was merely protection from fire; in other cases there was a rather crude selection of the trees to be cut, or grazing was restricted, or attempts were made to protect the young growth in logging. The Biltmore Estate, however, was the first to be managed in accordance with the principles of forestry. The work done on the estate was in the nature of an experiment to determine whether the introduction of forestry was practicable under the conditions obtaining in the lumber trade in the United States. The area under management was increased from the original 3,600 acres to 130,000 acres. Even in the first year, the forest work paid for itself and has been conducted successfully ever since. Most of this forest land has now been purchased by the government and is to become part of the national forest areas being established in the East. In general, the private owner of timberland has confined his efforts to fire protection, which is usually accomplished by means of associations such as have already been mentioned and by co-operation with the State and Federal governments. A number of private owners have practiced forest management profitably, however, since the Biltmore experiment. Conspicuous among these are wood pulp and paper manufacturers, who largely own the forests from which they get their logs. Because of the large investment in their mills and the impossibility of moving them to where there are new supplies of timber, these men are in many cases taking care of the young growth and limiting the cut to what the forests grow each year, thus insuring a permanent sustained yield. Of course, they also guard against fire, for that is the prerequisite to any successful forest management. practice of forestry by pulp and paper companies is largely localized in New England and the Adirondacks. On several tracts in New Hampshire, Michigan, and New York, and on the forest lands of the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn., forest management for the production of salable timber has proved successful. Abandoned farms in New England are often planted in timber and allowed to grow up from seed supplied by neighboring forests and are protected from fire and cut in short rotation for various uses. Several railroads are managing their forest properties for the production of a sustained yield of crossties. Many lumber companies are now employing technically trained foresters as a part of their woods force. This does not mean, of course, that they practice forestry; but it does indicate that the value to the lumberman of a technical knowledge and training is recognized. A large number of farmers and other small.

The

woodlot owners are now taking an interest in the proper cutting, protection, and reproduction of their timber; and in some of the States a part of the duty of the State forester is to assist farmers in the management of their woodlots. In the eastern States and the central hardwood region the woodlots are especially important. In the southern pine region and in the Douglas fir region of the Pacific Northwest fire protection is receiving more and more attention. In both of these regions secondgrowth timber is now being cut. On the whole, the practice of forestry by private owners is increasing but has become nationally important only in one branch-fire protection.

Forestry as an Investment. Returns from timber raising are realized perhaps once or twice in a lifetime, hardly more often at best. The amount of capital required is large. In the practice of private forestry certain carrying charges like taxes, interest, and protection costs must be met annually, while the return on the investment must be deferred. Therefore, only long-lived agencies, such as the State and corporations and large capitalists, are able to engage in it with any certainty of profit. Furthermore, where capital and interest are mixed together in an investment, as is the case with an investment in forestry, the pressure of competition or the necessity of meeting fixed charges leads very readily to forced exploitation of the timber-in other words, to the uneconomic anticipation of the harvest. The element of time and the consequent temptation to private owners to turn from scientific management to mere exploitation makes it easier for the State than for even large capitalists to practice forestry. When the forests are owned by the public, the infrequent returns are of no disadvantage, while taxes and interest charges do not have to be met; and as a result of the assurance of stable ownership systems of management beneficial to the forest but requiring long periods of time may be undertaken with the certainty of success.

Technical Forestry. In order to utilize the present forest most economically and profitably and at the same time to provide for a new growth which will produce timber and other forest products in the future, the science of forestry concerns itself with both forest management and forest production. Forest production comprises silviculture, forest protection, and forest utilization; forest management, the mensuration and valuation of forests, working plans, and forest policy.

The practical aims of silviculture are to secure quick reproduction after the removal of timber, to reproduce valuable species rather than those which are less marketable, to secure a large yield, to produce timber trees of good quality, and to secure the most rapid growth compatible with good stands and good quality. More broadly, silviculture has to do with the improvement of forest stands and with their establishment by natural reproduction or by artificial seeding and planting. Various socalled silvicultural systems which are adapted for use under certain conditions, are made use of for the accomplishment of these aims. These are known as the selection system, clear cutting systems, the shelterwood system, and the coppice system. In practice these are combined

and modified in various ways. Forest protection is concerned with the protection of the forest against fires, animals, insects and fungi, and all other detrimental influences. In America protection against forest fires is the most important, although such pests as various kinds of beetles, white pine blister rust, chestnut blight, and mistletoe are common and have to be fought and guarded against. Forest utilization deals with the best methods of utilizing all classes of forest products. This involves putting different classes of material to the use for which they are best fitted, determining the proper season for cutting and logging, and the methods of transportation from the forest to the mill and from the mill to market. Utilization takes into account not only the timber but all the by-products, such as pasturage, tanbark, extract wood, firewood, naval stores, etc. For the calculation of the material standing on a given area, the yield to be expected, and the value of single trees or whole stands, methods of forest mensuration are employed based on the determination of the dimensions, age, volume, the increment of trees and forests. These also serve as a basis for calculating the effect of different methods of treatment of the forest. Forest valuation aims to determine the value of the growing stock in the forest and the value of the forest soil. It is based, of course, on the knowledge derived from silviculture and mensuration; and is usually expressed as expectation value (the present value of all returns expected less the present value of all expenses which will be necessary to obtain those returns), cost value, or sale value. These expressions are applied to the forest soil, the growing stock, and the rental of a forest property. Forest management accomplishes the objects of forestry by means of forest working plans, which are based upon all other knowledge which has been gathered regarding the forest. The character of the working plan depends upon the object for which the forest is to be managed, so that the working plans for forests with different objects would be entirely different. The working plan takes special cognizance of the fact that for every tree or forest there may be three different kinds of increment; that is, volume, quality, and price increment. It usually includes a detailed description of the stand, the topography and climate, cost of logging, fire hazard and means of protection, the market for the product, the unit divisions of the forest, known technically as compartments, the length of the rotation, the objects of the silvicultural system, the treatment of the different species, and the general object of the forest management. Detailed description of the means to be used in handling the forest such as maps, organization, etc., are also

lumbering, the extremely moderate price and enormous supply of low-grade forest products, such as firewood and the cheaper kinds of lumber, the difficulties attendant on getting out much of the timber, transportation facilities which make most places in the country much less dependent on the local supply than is the case abroad, the vast number of small holdings of forest land, and the high taxes on forest property. The fundamentals of American practice are protection from fire, conservative lumbering, and care of the young growth. American practice has not aimed to secure a sustained annual yield; nor to adopt as they stand European systems of cutting; nor to maintain permanent forces of laborers or permanent logging-road systems. The American forester has to deal with different species, as well as different conditions, and in a large measure is compelled to work out his own methods. In the cutting of timber generally, the method hitherto practised by the lumberman, with such modifications as will insure the perpetuation of the forest, is still adhered to. This method is the selection of the large and the defective trees and the inferior species for cutting, the young growth of preferred species being preserved during the logging operation and sufficient large trees being left to restock the area or to furnish protection for the young growth as the case may be.

Summary.- Forestry has made great progress in America in the last 15 or 20 years. During that time it has been built up from almost nothing to a point where it is recognized as being of vital importance to the continued prosperity of the country. The technical equipment and training of the American forester have been brought to a very high standard; many of the essentials of American practice have been worked out; great advances have been made in the study of conditions peculiar to America; and intensive and specialized investigations have been made of the problems of forest management and wood utilization. The investigative work of American foresters now bids fair to rival in accomplishment the work which has been under way in Europe for several centuries. In the 25 years since the first forest land was dedicated by the government to the practice of forestry, a tremendous advance has been made in the forest policy of the nation. In the beginning, the creation of the national forests met with much opposition, due chiefly to the ideas of speculation prevalent in the great timber regions of the West and to the fear of special interests that public ownership of the forests would interfere with their plans. This opposition has not died away altogether, and at times manifests itself strongly, but it no longer has any considerable popular support and no longer appears in open attempts to do away with government ownership. It is now reduced to indirect attacks on details of the forest policy. A national forest policy has been firmly established, based upon government ownership and control of a sufficient amount of forest land of the United States to assure a continuous and perpetual supply of timber. See FOREST FIRES; FOREST LAWS; FOREST SCHOOLS; FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

Bibliography. Beveridge, Albert J., "The National Forest Service) (Speech in the Senate of the United States, Friday, 22 Feb. 1907,

Washington, 1907); Bruncken, Ernest, North American Forests and Forestry; their Relation to the Life of the American People (New York 1908); Compton, Wilson, The Organization of the Lumber Industry, with special reference to the influence determining the prices of lumber in the United States' (Chicago 1916); Defebaugh, James Elliott, History of the Lumber Industry of America' (2 vols., Chicago 1906-07); Elliot, S. B., Important Timber Trees of the United States' (Boston 1912); Fernow, Bernhard Eduard, 'Forestry in the United States Department of Agriculture during the period 1877-98' (Washington 1899, United States 55th Congress, 3d Sess., House Doc. No. 181); Economics of Forestry) (New York 1902), and A Brief History of Forestry in Europe, the United States and other Countries (Toronto 1911); Gifford, John_Clayton, 'Practical Forestry for Beginners in Forestry' (New York 1902); Graves, Henry Solon, The National Forests and the Farmer' (United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1914, pp. 65-88); Forest Mensuration); (New York 1906), and 'The Principles of Handling Woodlands' (New York 1911); Green, Samuel Bowdlear, Principles of American Forestry (New York 1903); Hawley, R. C., and Hawes, A. F., 'Forestry in New England' (New York 1912); Kellogg, Royal Shaw, Lumber and Its Uses (Chicago 1914); National Conservation Commission, 'Report of the Commission' (Vols. I-III, pl., maps, diagrs., Washington Government Printing Office, 1909, 60th Cong., 2d Sess., Senate Doc. No. 676); Pinchot, Gifford, The Government's Forest Policy (Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV, pp. 152–154, New York 1909), and "The Training of a Forester) (Philadelphia 1914); Recknagel, A. B., "Theory and Practice of Working Plans) (New York 1913); Record, Samuel James, 'The Mechanical Properties of Wood, including a discussion of the factors affecting the mechanical properties, and methods of timber testing' (New York 1914); Roth, Filibert, 'First Book of Forestry) (Boston 1902), Forest Valuation' (Vol. II, 171 pp., Michigan Manual of Forestry Ann Arbor, Mich., 1916); Sargent, Charles Sprague, 'Manual of the Trees of North America' (Boston 1905); Schlick, William, Manual of Forestry) (Vol. I, Introduction to Forestry, Vol. II, Silviculture, Vol. III, Forest Management, Vol. IV, Forest Protection, Vol. V, Forest Utilization, London 1894-1911); Schwappach, Adam Friedrich, 'Forestry (London 1904); Toumey, James W., Seeding and Planting (a manual for the guidance of forestry students, foresters, nurserymen, forest owners and farmers (New York 1916); Van Hise, Charles Richard, The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States' (ib. 1910); Weiss, Howard Frederick, The Preservation of Structural Timber' (ib. 1915); White, Stewart Edward, "The Fight for the Forests' (American Magazine, Vol. 65, New York, January 1908); The publications of the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

L. C. EVERARD, United States Forest Service. FORESTS, Petrified. Logs of trees petrified or replaced by silica and buried in sands and clays occur in various geological formations

in many parts of the world. Probably the most notable occurrence of this kind is the petrified forest in northeastern Arizona. This forest or series of forests lies 9 to 16 miles south of Adamana, a small station on the Santa Fé Railroad. They are so remarkable that in 1906 they were made a National Monument by President Roosevelt and placed in charge of a keeper under control of the Department of Agriculture. The trunks are all prostrate and mostly broken. They were of Araucarioxylon arizonicum, now extinct but related to the Norfolk Island pine, and existed in Triassic time. They grew near by and after falling drifted down a water course, lodged in some eddy, and were finally deeply buried by sand and clay. The conversion to stone was effected by gradual replacement of woody matter by silica deposited by underground water. A small amount of iron has given the beautiful brown, yellow and red tints for which this "wood" is noted. In thin slices under microscope the original cell structure of the wood is beautifully distinct. Some of the trunks are six feet in diameter and more than 100 feet in length, one forming a small natural bridge, the clay having been washed out beneath it. Some logs are in place where buried, but most of them roll down slopes as the sand and clay is washed away. Petrified wood occurs at other places in Arizona and New Mexico, and there are many trunks, some upright, in the eastern part of the Yellowstone Park. See PALEOBOTANY.

N. H. DARTON,

United States Geological Survey. FOREY, Elie Frédéric, a-lē frå-da-rik fō-rā, French military officer: b. Paris, France, 10 Jan. 1804; d. there, 20 June 1872. He took part in several Algerian campaigns as well as in the Crimean and Sardinian wars, and when the expedition to Mexico was decided upon in 1861, Forey received the command of the French troops. After several sanguinary engagements, he attacked and stormed the strong post of Puebla, thereby throwing open the road to the city of Mexico. For this service he was made marshal of France.

FORFAR, for'fer, Scotland, a municipal borough and capital of the county of Forfar, at the east end of Loch of Forfar, 13 miles northeast of Dundee. It contains a courthouse, county hall, town hall, the Meffan Institute, an infirmary and Reid hall. The principal industries are linen and jute manufactures, brewing, tanning, rope-making, and iron-founding. The parliaments of Scotland once met within the walls of the old castle of Forfar. It was made a burgh by David I in the 12th century, was burned down in the 13th, and thereafter dwindled to a country village. Witches were persecuted in Forfar, and there is shown in the county hall a witches' bridle, a gag used to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to the place of execution. Pop. 12,254.

FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, Scotland, an eastern maritime county, bounded north by Kincardine and Aberdeen, west by Perthshire, south by the Firth of Tay, and east by the North Sea. Its area is 873.7 square miles. The island of Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to Forfar. Its surface is irregular and hilly. The Sidlaw Hills and the Binchinnin