Louisiana, being admitted to the bar in 1872. In 1878-80 he was assistant corporation counsel and in 1880 corporation counsel of New Orleans. He was for years chairman of the Executive Committee of One Hundred to reform the municipal government of New Orleans. He was chairman of the committee of safety formed to prosecute the Mafia assassins of the chief of police and led the campaign which defeated the proposition to extend the charter of the Louisiana Lottery. He was one of the organizers of the National Democracy in 1896 and made a notable address on the money question at the Indianapolis Convention. In 1906-08 he was president of the Louisiana Tax Commission and in 1910-11 was president of the American Bar Association. In 1882 he was selected by Paul Tulane as one of the trustees of the fund exceeding $1,000,000 to found Tulane University.

FARRAR, Eliza Ware Rotch, American writer: b. Flanders, Belgium, 1791; d. Springfield, Mass., 22 April 1870. She married Prof. John Farrar of Harvard University. Her works include The Children's Robinson Crusoe'; 'The Story of Lafayette'; 'The Youth's Love-Letters; Congo in Search of His Master) (1854); and Recollections of Seventy Years (1865).

FARRAR, Frederic William, English clergyman and author: b. Bombay, 7 Aug. 1831; d. London, 22 March 1903. He studied at King William's College, Isle of Man, and Trinity College, Cambridge, having gained one of the college scholarships. He was ordained deacon in the Established Church 1854 and priest in 1857, and for 16 years was an assistant master at Harrow. From 1871 till 1876 he was head master at Marlborough College, resigning on his appointment as a canon of Westminster and rector of Saint Margaret's. In 1883 he was appointed archdeacon of Westminster, and in 1895 became dean of Canterbury. From 1890 till 1895 he acted as chaplain to the House of Commons. Besides identifying himself with various social and philanthropic movements, he published many popular and able works of various kinds. In fiction he published 'Eric, or Little by Little' (1858); Julian Home: a Tale of College Life' (1859); Saint Winifred's' (1862); Gathering Clouds: a Tale of the Days of Saint Chrysostom (1895); in philology; 'Origin of Language) (1860); 'Families of Speech (1870); Language and Languages' (1878), etc.; and on theological and religious subjects: 'Seekers After God (1868); The Witness of History to Christ' (1871); 'Life of Christ' (1874), a work which achieved extraordinary popularity; Life of Saint Paul' (1879), also highly popular; 'Early Days of Christianity) (1882); History of Interpretation' (1885); 'Sermons and Addresses in America' (1886); Eternal Hope' (1888); 'Lives of the Fathers) (1889), a popular work; "The Bible: Its Meaning and Supremacy' (1897); The Herods' (1897); The Life of Lives' (1900). In August 1885, he came to the United States, thereby realizing what he said had been one of the desires of his life. He remained in this country until the beginning of December, traveling, visiting friends and lecturing. He was a man of great eloquence, tremendous energy and was greatly beloved by

all ranks, high as well as low. His most intimate American friend was Phillips Brooks.

FARRAR, Geraldine (Mrs. Lou Tellegen), American grand opera singer: b. Melrose, Mass., 28 Feb. 1882. She began her musical education under Mrs. Long at Boston, and under Madame Thursby of New York. Later she studied at Paris and Berlin. On 15 Oct. 1901 she made her début at the Royal Opera House, Berlin, as Marguerite in Faust. She achieved an instant success and was at once engaged for three years in Berlin, where she was a prime favorite. In 1906 she returned to her native land, and thereafter appeared as a member of the Metropolitan Opera Company, New York. Her principal rôles include Marguerite, Butterfly, Manon, Micaela, Mignon, Elizabeth, Tosca, Zerlina, Juliet, Gilda, Violetta, etc.

FARRE, fär, Jean Joseph Frédéric Albert, French general: b. Valence, Drôme, 1816; d. 1887. In 1859 he led the pioneer corps of the army of occupation at Rome and in the FrancoPrussian War had charge of the fortifications of Arras. In November 1870 he was placed in command of the three divisions of the Army of the North. When Manteuffel drove him from before Amiens, he was replaced by Faidherbe. In 1879 he was appointed Minister of War, and during his administration he removed from office all officers suspected of favoring the Legitimist or Bonaparte cause. Becoming unpopular because of his measures against Tunis he was superseded as Minister in November 1881. He was elected life senator in 1880.

FARRELL, James A., American steel manufacturer: b. New Haven, Conn., 1863. He was educated in the public schools of New Haven and began work in a steel wire mill there at the age of 16. In 1888 he was employed as laborer in the mills of the Pittsburgh Wire Company, of which he rose to be superintendent and manager. Subsequently he became general superintendent of the Oliver Steel Wire Company and general manager of the Oliver Iron and Steel Company. He organized a wire company at Braddock, Pa., which became part of the American Steel and Wire Company, of which Mr. Farrell was general manager of exports until 1903. From 1903 to 1911 he was president of the United States Steel Products Export Company and in January 1911 became president of the United States Steel Corporation.

FARREN, Elizabeth, English actress: b. 1759; d. 1829. Her father, George Farren, was a strolling player and Elizabeth appeared on the boards while still a child. In 1777 she made her London début at the Haymarket as Miss Hardcastle in She Stoops to Conquer.' In the following year she appeared at Drury Lane, where she played for several years, succeeding Mrs. Abingdon in 1782 as leading lady in comedy. Her chief rôles were Lady Townly, Lady Fanciful, Clarinda in The Suspicious Husband, Lady Betty Modish in The Careless Husband, Lady Emily Gayville in (The Heiress, Julia in 'The Rivals, and Lady Teazle in The School for Scandal.' Her last appearance was as Lady Teazle on 8 April 1797. On 1 May of that year she became Countess of Derby. Her portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence is in the Metropolitan Museum, New

York. Consult Doran, 'Annals of the Stage,' edited by Lowe (London 1888); Galt, 'Lives of the Players' (ib. 1831); Geneste, History of the Stage' (Bath 1832); Matthews and Hutton, Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States' (New York 1886).

FARREN, William, English actor: b. 13 May 1786; d. London, 24 Sept. 1861. He was the son of an actor of the same name who was long prominent at Covent Garden. William, Jr. made his début at Plymouth at the Theatre Royal in 'Love à la mode.' In 1818 he appeared in London at Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle, a part in which he achieved great success. For 10 seasons he played at Covent Garden and in 1824 began a series of summer engagements at the Haymarket, always appearing in comedy rôles. In 1828-37 he played at Drury Lane, and here he essayed more ambitious rôles, including Cæsar. After 1837 he again appeared at Covent Garden and later became stage manager at the Haymarket. 1843 he was stricken with paralysis, and although he continued on the boards for 10 years more his acting never reached its former high level. In 1850-53 he was lessee of the Olympic. In his later years he played old men parts, a field in which he was without a rival. His final appearance was at the Haymarket in 1855. His sons William (1825-1908) and Henry (1826-60) were both successful actors. Henry's daughter Ellen ["Nellie"] Farren [b. 1848; d. 1904] became famous for her portrayal of boy's parts in the Gaiety musical burlesques. Consult Cook, 'Hours with the Players' (London 1881).

In

FARRER, făr'er, Edward, Canadian journalist: b. County Mayo, Ireland, 1850. He received his education at Stonyhurst College, England, and at the Jesuit College, Rome. In 1870 he went to Canada and entered on his career of journalist as editorial writer on the Toronto Daily Telegraph, later joining the Mail. In 1874 he returned to Ireland as Canadian immigration agent, and subsequently became foreign editor of the New York World. In 1882-84 he was chief editor of the Toronto Mail, and thereafter was successively editor of the Winnipeg Times and Sun and the Toronto Globe. He retired in 1892, removed to Washington, D. C., for some years, but returned to Canada in 1905 and settled at Ottawa, where he corresponded for foreign journals. Farrer is by many considered the ablest editorial writer of Canada, although his animosity toward his old faith caused the epithets of renegade and bigot to be leveled at his head. He also roused the ire of the Loyalists and Tories by advocating the annexation of Canada to the United States.

FARRER, Henry, American artist: b. London, England, 23 March 1844; d. 1903. He was the son of an English miniature painter, Thomas Farrer (1770-1850), and came to New York in 1863. He painted largely in water colors, but was widely known as an etcher also. The best of his etchings are views about New York harbor, in which his treatment of sky is very successful.

FARRER, Thomas Henry, 1ST BARON, English economist: b. London, 24 June 1819; d. Abinger Hall, Dorking, 11 Oct. 1899. received his education at Eton and Balliol Col

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lege, Oxford. In 1844 he was called to the bar, but remained in practice only a few years. In 1850 he entered the public service as secretary to the naval department of the Board of Trade. In 1865 he was appointed one of the joint secretaries of the board and two years later was made permanent secretary. His administration, extending over a period of 20 years, was productive of many reforms, and in 1883 he was created a baronet and retired from office three years later. He was an ardent advocate of Free Trade and in 1886 published Free Trade versus Fair Trade,' in which he dealt with the pressing economic problems of that day. In 1889 he became alderman of the London county council and the following year became vice-chairman of that body. He was raised to the peerage in 1893 and spent his remaining years advocating and expounding his free trade doctrines in press and platform. His 'Studies in Currency appeared in 1898.

FARRIER, a professional shoer of horses, or, in a more general sense, a practitioner of the veterinary art. His business is termed farriery. As one who professes skill and a member of a "common calling," the farrier is obliged to practise his art on demand and to execute it with ordinary skill and care. He is liable in law for negligence and has a lien on the animal shod for expenses. In modern times the term has come to be associated with one who, in addition to horse-shoeing, possesses a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot and hoof, and is able to diagnose and prescribe treatment for the various ailments peculiar thereto.

FARRIERY. See FARRIER. FARRINGTON, Oliver Cummings, American geologist: b. Brewer, Me., 9 Oct. 1864. He was graduated at the University of Maine in 1881, became lecturer on mineralogy in the University of Chicago in 1894 and curator of geology at the Field Columbian Museum in the same year. He has published 'Meteorites'; 'The Volcanoes of Mexico'; and (Gems and Gem Minerals' (1903).

The

FARS, färs, or FARSISTAN, fär-sis-tän' (ancient PERSIS), Persia, province in the southwest, about 300 miles long by 250 miles broad. Its chief rivers are the Bandamir, the Sefidrud and the Mand, and it has several salt lakes, of which the largest is that of Bakhtegan. The climate is not unhealthful, except along the coast, where it is very hot in the summer. most important products are grain, rice, fruit, wine, oil, cotton, tobacco, silk, cochineal and attar of roses. The manufactures include woolen, silk and cotton goods, and in these and other articles an active trade is carried on, chiefly with India. Many ancient ruins are scattered over the province. The capital is Shiraz and the chief port is Bushire or Abushehr. About 30 miles north of Shiraz are the ruins of Persepolis, an ancient city. The people of this province are among the best preserved types of the Aryans. Pop. (estimated) 1,700,000. See PERSIA.

FARSAN (fär-sän’) ISLANDS, a group of two larger and several small islands on the east side of the Red Sea. The surface is diversified by hills composed of coral and occasional valleys and plains. Pearl-fishing is here an important industry.

FARUKHABAD, fü-rook'ä-bäd, or FARRAKHABAD, fur-ruk-ä-bäd', India: (1) town in India, in a district of the same name in the United Provinces, about two miles west of the Ganges, 90 miles west-northwest of Lucknow. It forms a single municipality with Fatehgarh, the civil headquarters of the district, situated three miles to the east. An American Presbyterian mission is located here. Pop. (1911), with cantonment, 59,647. (2) The district of Farukhabad forms part of the Agra division and lies mainly along the right bank of the Ganges. Area, 1,685 square miles. Pop. about 950,000.

FARWELL, Charles Benjamin, American merchant and legislator: b. Painted Post, N. Y., 1 July 1823; d. Lake Forest, Ill., 23 Sept. 1903. Having gone in 1838 to Illinois, he was there engaged in farming and government survey. work until 1844, when he entered a mercantile career in Chicago. He accumulated a fortune in the dry-goods trade. In 1869 he was a national bank examiner, in 1871-77 and 1881-83 a representative in Congress. From 1887 to 1891 he was United States senator, having been elected to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Gen. John A. Logan. He was a figure of some prominence in both State and national politics.

FASANO, fä-säʼnō, Italy, city in the southeast, near the Adriatic, 45 miles northwest of Brindisi. It is in the midst of an olive district and there are numerous oil presses in the town and neighborhood. The chief trade is in oil and wine. The cottages of many of the peasants have been made from the stone taken from old walls. Fasano was at one time a wealthy residential and commercial city. Pop. of the commune, 20,077.

FASCES, fas'ēz (Lat. fascis, a bundle), the most ancient insignia of the Roman magistrates, consisting of bundles of rods, usually birch, bound with which was an axe with projecting blade; used as a symbol of authority. The fasces was carried by an attendant known as a lictor. The number of lictors varied according to rank and for a given dignitary frequently differed at different periods. Fasces were accorded quæstors in the provinces only.

FASCH, fäsh, Karl Friedrich Christian, German musician: b. Zerbst, 1736; d. 1800. His father was court capellmeister at Zerbst and Karl's early instruction was under his direction. In 1756 he was appointed cembalist to Frederick the Great at Berlin. He was capellmeister of the Berlin opera in 1774-76 but resigned his public appointments in the latter year and thereafter devoted all his attention to composition. He was the founder of the Berlin Singakademie. Fasch's church music was published in six volumes (1839). Consult the biography by Zelter (1801).

FASCIA, in anatomy, an animal tissue, consisting of dense connecting sheets or layers, of the nature of fibrous membrane, close and strong as tendon or ligament. The fascia in the economy of animal anatomy serves the purpose of confining within its proper area supporting as a sort of fulcrum, separating from one contiguous tissue, or attaching to another, some muscle, part or organ of the body. Consult the works on 'Anatomy' of Quain and Morris,

in English; of Gegenbaur and Rauber, in German; and of Testut and Poirier, in French.

In architecture, a flat band, running horizontally across an entablature. The architrave in the Corinthian and Ionic orders is divided into three bands which are called fascia; the lowest being called the first fasciæ, the middle one the second, and the upper one the third. When there are only two fasciæ, they are called the upper and lower. See COLUMN; ENTABLA

TURE.

FASCINATION (Lat. fascinare, "to bewitch"). Various animals such as toads, hawks and notably certain varieties of serpents have been popularly invested with the power of controlling by their eyes the movements of intended victims. Such power has never been scientifically demonstrated and supposed manifestations have generally been explained as paralysis through fear on the part of the victim. For an account of the belief in the evil eye in human beings see SUPERSTITIONS, POPULAR.

FASCINE, fă'sēn (Lat. fascina, a bundle of sticks), in fortification, a cylindrical bundle of faggots or brushwood used to form parapets, strengthen ramparts, elevate batteries, prepare temporary field defenses and the like. They vary in size from 6 to 18 feet in length, six to nine inches in diameter and are bound with withes. Fascines dipped in pitch or other combustible matter are sometimes used in order to set fire to the enemy's lodgments or other works. In civil engineering fascines are used in making sea and river walls to protect shores subject to washing; or to collect sand, silt and mud to raise the bottom and gradually form an island, either as a breakwater against inroads, or for purposes of cultivation, as in Holland.

FASCIOLARIA, a genus of mollusks. See

FUSIDEÆ.

FASHION, conventional usage in the matter of certain details of life, especially the changes and modifications of costume in civilized nations; mode or style in dress. Such variations of costume were unknown to most nations of the ancient world and among the Romans only influenced the accessories of the toilet. The unchanging East is as unchanging in its dress as in everything else and the fashions to which savage tribes uncompromisingly adhere remain unaltered for long periods. In some remote districts of European countries peasants still dress in the costume brought two or three hundred years ago by the local nobility from court and the smock-frock of the English agricultural laborer is a relic of Saxon times. (For detailed history of the costumes of different periods, see article on COSTUME and for certain principles underlying the subject, see DRESS). Survivals in modern costume may sometimes be traced back to unexpected origins. With regard to the modern evening dress-coat we learn that it owes its peculiarities to its descent from the old-time everyday garment in which a man rode and worked. "The cutting away at the waist had once the reasonable purpose of preventing the coat skirts from getting in the way in riding, while the pair of useless buttons behind the waist are also relics from the times when such buttons really served the purpose of fastening these skirts behind; the curiously cut collar keeps the now misplaced

notches made to allow of its being worn turned up or down." It is said that the modern cylindrical hat is the indirect descendant of the Puritan steeple-crowned hat, carried across the Atlantic by the Pilgrim Fathers, thence again to France, when Benjamin Franklin and the young Republicans were the height of the fashion and by the French manipulated into the hat which they have given to all the world. Certain striking features in vogue at different times in the dress both of men and of women have originated in the lack of bodily symmetry or in other physical defects in various monarchs or other leaders of fashion. Until the 19th century men's clothes were as delicate in color and as rich in material as women's. Pepys records in his diary how he had his wife's gowns cut up into waistcoats for himself. The uniforms of officials or of persons connected with public or special service, the judge's and the clergyman's robe and the student's cap and gown cannot be said to have had their origin in fashion; nor can the indication of political or religious opinions by peculiarities of dress, as among Puritans and Quakers, or as illustrated by colored cockades or other party emblems be called phases of fashion, yet fashion has been sometimes closely connected with political changes. Dress attained its highest point of significance in France during the last half of the 18th century, when it marks unmistakably the various stages of the Revolution. Rousseau's Emile and Nouvelle Héloïse' and Goethe's 'Werther' brought sentimentality into fashion; women's hair was dressed in bandeaux d'amour or poufs de sentiment; and Marie Antoinette and the ladies of her court sought to return to the simplicity of nature by masquerading in the Trianon attired as shepherdesses and milkmaids. The works of Montesquieu and Voltaire had created an admiration for England and the courtiers of Versailles dressed themselves like English foxhunting squires, while their wives and daughters got themselves up à l'Anglaise in coats with cuffs, collars and facings, beaver-hats and cravats. As the political turmoil increased, fashionable attire grew more and more eccentric and multiform, till at last republican institutions triumphed and the women of France began to clothe themselves as like as possible to those of Greece and Rome both in style and scantiness. They disregarded costly materials and shivered through the winter months clad in a few yards of muslin. Men wore a combination of antique and romantic costume invented by the painter David, which was finished off with Hungarian boots. At the present time the fashions for women in all civilized countries are set by Paris; for men, though not so exclusively, by London. One marked feature of the ever-changing kaleidoscope of fashion is its tendency to revolve in cycles. Cycles of alternate luxury and simplicity have also distinguished all ages. Fashions change more quickly each decade, a fact due in great measure to increased facilities of communication, while the triumph of democracy is shown by their universal adoption by all classes. Consult. Nos Aieules,' translated as Ten Centuries of Toilet,' by Mrs. Cashel Hoey (1892); Boutet, Modes feminines du XIXe Siècle' (Paris 1902); Geszler, 'Die Moden des XIX Jahrhundert' (Vienna 1897); Hill, 'History of English Dress' (London 1893); Price, Dame Fashion, 1786-1912) (ib. 1913);

Uzanne, Les Modes de Paris' (Paris 1898). See also bibliography article COSTUME.

FASHODA, fä-sho'dä, Egyptian Sudan town founded in 1867 by the Egyptian government, situated on the Bahr-el-Abiad or White Nile, 400 miles south of Khartum and about 70 miles northeast of the confluence of the Sobat River with the Nile. In July 1898 it was occupied by a small French force, but some months later it was claimed by the British for Egypt. Ultimately the French force evacuated the town, which was then formally occupied by Sudanese troops.

FASSAITE, fas'a-it, the name applied to a pale green to pistachio or dark green variety of augite, or aluminous pyroxene. It occurs in metamorphic marly limestone in the Fassathal, Tyrol.

FASSETT, fas'ět, Cornelia Adèle Strong, American artist: b. Owasco, N. Y., 9 Nov. 1831; d. Washington, D. C., 4 Jan. 1898. She studied in New York as well as in Paris and Rome, and from 1875 lived in Washington, where she painted portraits of many prominent statesmen. Her most important work is The Electoral Commission in Open Session, including the portraits of some 200 persons.

FASSETT, Jacob Sloat, American lawyer and capitalist: b. Elmira, N. Y., 13 Nov. 1853. He was graduated from Rochester University 1875; and was admitted to the bar 1878. In 1879-80 he was district attorney of Chemung County, and in 1880-81 studied constitutional law and political economy at Heidelberg University. He was State senator 1884-90 and was defeated as Republican nominee for governor in the year last named. He was temporary chairman at the Republican National Convention in Minneapolis in 1892. In 1905-11 he was a member of Congress from the 33d New York district. He was the proprietor of the Elmira Daily Advertiser from 1879 to 1896, and controls mining, banking and other interests in the Western States.

FAST AND LOOSE, the name of a cheating game, also called "pricking at the belt," which appears to have been much practised by English gypsies in the time of Shakespeare, and which is still played at fairs, races and similar meetings under the name of "prick the garter.” The game consists in trying to pin to a table a belt or similar object so folded as to produce a misleading effect. The original name, in the phrase "to play fast and loose," has gone into the language to designate the conduct.

FASTENRATH, Johannes, yo-hän'-něs fäs'ten-rat, German poet and story writer: b. Remscheid, 3 May 1839; d. 1908. A brief sojourn in Spain (1864) filled him with a permanent enthusiasm for its land and literature which inspired nearly all his life-work. He translated Juan Diana's comedy Receipt Against Mothers-in-Law'; and compiled a series of volumes which are less translations than transcriptions in the spirit of the originals -A Wreath of Spanish Romances'; Hesperian Blooms'; 'The Book of My Spanish Friends'; Voices of Christmas.' He also published several works on the history of Spanish literature; and in Spanish, 'Passion-Books of a German-Spaniard,' a description of the

Oberammergau Passion Play; and 'Walhalla and the Glories of Germany.' A volume of war songs dedicated To the German Heroes of 1870 is likewise his.

FASTI, fas'ti (Lat. fasti, lawful, fas, divine law, DIES, days), in ancient Rome, days on which the transaction of business before the prætor was legal, days on which court did not sit being dies nefasti. The name thence came to be applied to two sorts of registers or tables: (1) The fasti sacri or fasti kalendares, containing the calendars of the year and corresponding to the modern almanacs. These were at first known only to the pontifices, or priests, who announced them to the people, and had thus a source of power and profit. In 304 B.C. Cn. Flavius, who had been secretary to the Pontifex Maximus Appius Claudius Crassus, exposed them to the people. (2) The fasti annales or historici, which formed a chronicle of contemporary events, containing the names of the chief magistrates of the year and a series of the more remarkable events noted in the order of the days of their occurrence.

FASTING. In its religious or magical signification, and as a social custom, fasting, by which is implied abstinence from food, and sometimes from drink as well, varies among different races. Among savage races the rite was enjoined at certain stages of life, as an act of mourning (when it is the usual precedent, and is occasionally preceded by a feast), as a rite of preparation at the initiation into manhood or womanhood or for sacred and ritual acts, as an act of penitence and as an ascetic practice. It is usually accompanied by continence, by other austerities, and by prayer. Among the American Indians the rite was widely observed, was practised both in private and in connection with public ceremonies, and tribal fasts were occasionally ordered by the chiefs to avert some threatened calamity. Among the Melanesians certain foods are forbidden to pregnant women, and fasting is enjoined on the fathers of newly-born children. So widely diffused was the custom that it was practised in nearly all the nations of antiquity — in Armenia, Persia, Scythia, Nineveh, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Among the Hindus it has always been an ascetic practice, although Gautama Buddha enjoined moderation rather than excessive fasting. Among the Jews the fasts were all founded on tradition, except that of the Day of Atonement, which was appointed by Moses, to which five days of compulsory fasting were afterward added, in commemoration of days of humiliation and national misfortune. With the Jews fasting always implies entire abstinence, and lasts, except on the Day of Atonement and the 9th of Ab, from daybreak to the appearance of the first three stars.

Although Our Lord fasted 40 days before the beginning of his public ministry and probably kept the Day of Atonement obligatory on his race, he left no direct rules for fasting. It was incongruous, he said, "that the children of the bridechamber fast when the Bridegroom was with them; but the days would come when the Bridegroom should be taken away from them, and then should they fast in those days." (Mark ii, 19-20). Hence it was inferred that from the time of

His ascension the practice was obligatory on His disciples, the temporary cause of exemption hitherto existing having ceased.

During the first two centuries of the Christian era fasting was voluntary on the part of the faithful, and was practised before holy acts and rites, such as baptism, communion and ordination. The Pascal fast is first mentioned by Irenæus (A.D. 195). The fast of 40 hours when Our Lord lay in the grave had gradually expanded in the 6th century into the 40 days Lenten fast, while the mode of fasting varied greatly. Fasts, Hooker explains, were "set as ushers of festival days," their object being "to temper the mind, lest contrary affections coming in place should make it too profuse and dissolute." The fast days in the Roman Catholic Church are: All the week days of Lent, beginning on Ash Wednesday; the Fridays in Advent; the Ember days, namely, Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays following (1) the first Sunday in Lent, (2) Whitsunday, (3) the 14th of September, (4) the third Sunday of Advent; also the vigils of Pentecost, the Assumption, All Saints and Christmas. When the vigil falls on Sunday the fast is kept on the Saturday preceding. The days of abstinence (on which flesh-meat is not allowed) are all Fridays in the year and fast days. Illness, old age and other causes may entitle a person to a dispensation from these regulations. The Anglican appoints the following fixed days for fasting and abstinence, between which no difference is made: (1) the 40 days of Lent; (2) the Ember days, at the four seasons; (3) the three Rogation days before Holy Thursday; (4) every Friday except Christmas Day. The difference between the Roman Catholic and the Anglican Church in regard to fasting is that, according to Hooker, the former holds it as an imperative means of grace, the latter as a useful exercise preparatory for the means of

grace.

The practice of fasting was retained by the Protestant Reformers in Europe. In England it was rigorously enforced by parliamentary sanction, as shown in the acts of Edward VI and James I, and the proclamations of Elizabeth; but the abstinence from flesh-meat on fast days appears to have been enjoined mainly as an aid to the fishing and shipbuilding industries. In Scotland pre-communion fast days were appointed by the Presbyterian Church, when business was entirely suspended; but within recent times these have fallen almost entirely into desuetude.

Our Puritan forefathers brought with them to New England the practice of occasional appointments for special causes, named by the churches as well as by civil authority. The day before they left Leyden (21 July 1620), "when being ready to depart they had a day of solemn humiliation," in anticipation of the voyage. Owing to a series of misfortunes that befell the Plymouth colony a solemn fast day was appointed, to be observed on Wednesday, 16 July 1623 (Old Style). The prejudice against popish and prelatical ordinances made the observance of Lent or of Good Friday obnoxious to the founders of New England, and no considerable change of sentiment in this regard took place till after the Revolutionary War. The occasional spring fast gradually passed into an