Imagine, for example, that portions of our religious and temperance literature were to be perused by a people or a generation to whom our inner doctrine was unknown -how great and manifold would be the misunderstandings! Mr. Jowett, M. A., the Professor of Greek at Oxford, may be cited as an impartial authority on this head :—“ Such examples (as Daniel and Tobit) show what the Jews had learned to practice or admire in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era. So John the Baptist fed on locusts and wild honey.' A later age delighted to attribute a similar abstinence to James, the brother of our Lord (Hegesippus apud Euseb. H. E. ii. 23); and to Matthew (Clemens Alexandrinus, Pad. ii. 2, p. 174); heretical writers added Peter to the list of these enkratites (Epiph. Her. xxx. 2; Clemens, Hom. xii. 6). The Apostolic Canons (xliii.) admit an ascetic-abstinence, but denounce those who abstain [like the Persian Magi and Manichees] from any sense of the impurity of matter. (See passages quoted in Fritshe, iii. p. 151.) Jewish as well as Alexandrian and Oriental influences combined to maintain the practice in the first centuries. Long after it had ceased to be a Jewish scruple, it remained as a counsel of perfection." (Epistles of St Paul, vol. ii. Lond. 1855.) Speaking (p. 313) of the sects prevalent in Judea just prior to the advent of the Redeemer, Professor Jowett observes :-"In their first commencement, the zealots were animated by noble thoughts. Many of these 'Galileans' must have been among the first converts. Like the Essenes, they probably stood in some relation that we are unable to trace to the followers of John the Baptist and of Christ." In regard to the opinions of heretical writers of the first four or five centuries it must be remembered that we have often to depend on the testimonies of their enemies, who destroyed their books; and it is demonstrable that, in many respects, they were grossly misunderstood, and therefore misrepresented. St Augustine, for example, charges some of the abstaining 'heretics' with folly, because, said he, while they refuse wine, even at the Sacrament, they actually suck the juice of the grape! Augustine has a numerous posterity up to the present day, who fancy that there is an inconsistency here, when in fact there is merely a confusion in the minds of the objectors. The simple solution is, that unfermented wine' is as different from the fermented, in its nature and effects, as a good will is different from a vicious will, or a prudent 'wife' from an imprudent. The generic words are the same, but the concrete things extremely diverse. Still, the testimony is valuable as a proof of the continuity of the practice of abstinence in the Church.

Theodoret remarks of Tatian (A. D. 172), that “he abhors the use of wine.” Augustine reproaches "the Manichees with being so perverse that while they refuse wine (vinum), and call it the gall of the Prince of Darkness (fel principiis tenebrarum), they nevertheless eat of grapes."—De Morib. Manichæor. lib. ii. § 44

Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, says of the Enkratites (or Temperates), "They did not use wine at all, saying, it was of the Devil; and that drinking and using it was sinful." This was evidently said of intoxicating wine, not of the natural juice of the grape, which they are charged with inconsistently sucking.

Photius observes of the Severians,-"They were averse to wine as the cause of drunkenness."

From this doctrine, propagated to the Eremites of the desert, and the later monks of the Arabian border, there can be little doubt that Mohammed borrowed his famous dictum :-"Of the fruit of the grape ye obtain an inebriating liquor, and also good nourishment." He issued an interdict against the one, but never against the other. [See note on Rev. vi. 6.]

The hostile spirit of controversy, in the early ages, however, led to the doctrine being repudiated in toto by the triumphant party, and thus the association of a

practical truth with real or supposed errors, was, for want of logical discrimination, the unhappy cause of great subsequent corruption of life in the Christian Church. The dark ages set in, followed by the skeptical, and it is only in our day that men are rising above the mists, and looking once more at the original and abiding facts. The most remarkable of all the religious communities of antiquity, were the ESSENES and THERAPEUTÆ, with their kindred associates. We are indebted for our knowledge of them to two writers—namely, Josephus, the Jewish historian, and Philo, another Jew, of the Alexandrian school. Their tenets and practices, in many curious particulars, bore so great a resemblance to those of the early Christians, that some learned writers have contended that they were Christians, protecting themselves from persecution, and probable extinction, under the veil of a secret Jewish sect. The Rev. John Jones, the ingenious author of 'Ecclesiastical Researches' (1812), and De Quincy, the critic and philosopher, have put forth elaborate essays in support of that view. This certainly would account for the singular fact that no special mention of the Essenes occurs in the New Testament, but Dean Prideaux has advanced another theory:

"Although our Saviour very often censured all the other sects then among the Jews, yet He never spake of the Essenes, neither is there any mention of them through the whole Scriptures of the New Testament. This proceeded, some think, from their retired way of living; for, their abode being mostly in the country, they seldom came into cities; nor were they in our Saviour's time ever seen at the temple, or in any public assembly; and therefore, not falling in the way of our Saviour's observation, for this reason, say they, He took no notice of them. But much more likely it was, that being a very honest and sincere sort of people, without guile or hypocrisy, they gave no reason for that reproof and censure which the others very justly deserved."

Josephus thus writes of them in his 'Jewish Antiquities' (book xv. c. 11)— "These men live the same kind of life as do those whom the Greeks call Pythagoreans. .. It is but fit to set down here the reasons wherefore Herod had these Essenes in such honor. . . There was one, named Manahem, who had this testimony, that he not only conducted his life after an excellent fashion, but was endued by God with the foreknowledge of future events. Many of the Essenes have, by the excellency of their life, been deemed worthy of divine revelations."

This author curiously refers to a secret, mystery, or oath which the Essenes had, suggesting that on this point of esoteric or inner doctrine, we must take what he says with caution: Jones and De Quincey believe that this was nothing but an Agape, or religious 'Love-feast.'

Josephus further says ('Wars,' book ii. c. 8),—“The Essenes are Jews by nation and a society of men friendly to each other beyond what is to be found among any other people. They have an aversion to sensuous pleasure in the same manner as to that which is truly evil. Temperance (teen enkrateian), and the keeping their passions in subjection, they esteem a virtue of the first order. . . . They have stewards chosen for the management of their common stock, who provide for all according as every man hath need. They do not all live together in one city, but in every city many of them dwell. These give reception to all travelers of their sect, who eat and drink with them as freely as of their own, going in unto them, though they never saw them before, in the same manner as if they had been old acquaintances." Of their diet, regimen, and longevity, Josephus gives a most interesting account. In this manner, the Essenes passed the day: "They are, in what concerns God, remarkably religious. For before sunrise, they speak on no

secular subject, offering up to God their prayers in ancient forms received from their predecessors, specially supplicating that He would make the sun of his blessing to rise upon them. After this, each is sent by the superior of the community to work in the employment they are best skilled in, and having diligently labored till the fifth hour [that is, till eleven in the morning], they assemble again in one place, and each having a linen garment to put about him, they wash themselves in cold water. After this lustration, they go into a private room, where none but their own order is permitted to enter. And being thus cleansed, they go into the refectory (or dining-room) with the same behavior as into a holy temple; and after a silence, the baker lays before every man his loaf of bread, and the cook in like manner, serves up to each his dish, all of the same sort of food. The priest then says grace before meat, it not being lawful for any one to taste before the grace be said; and after dinner they say grace again: and thus they always begin and end their meal with praise and thanksgiving to God, as the giver of their food. After this they put off the robes, looking on them as in some sense sacred, and again betake themselves each to his work till evening, when returning they take their supper in the same manner as they had done their dinner, their guests sitting at meal with them, if any such happen to be in the place. No clamor or tumult is ever known in the houses; for when together, they speak only each in turn. This silence appears to those not of their sect as a venerable and sacred custom. All this is the result of a constant course of sobriety in their moderating their eating and drinking only to the end of sufficing nature.* ... They are long-livers, so that many of them arrive to the age of a hundred years; which is to be ascribed to their simple and plain diet, and the temperance and good order observed in all things." Josephus records a fact concerning the Essenes, which is strikingly in harmony with Christian doctrine, as expounded by Paul (Rom. xii. 1)—“Though they send gifts to the temple, they do not sacrifice victims, having adopted a different mode of purification, being themselves the victims they offer up” — a living sacrifice. (Antiquities, book xviii. c. i.) Philo, in his treatise on 'the virtuous being also free,' refers to the Essenes in similar language. "They are above all men devoted to the service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying to preserve their own minds in a state of holiness and purity."

In his Antiquities' (book xviii. c. i.), Josephus gives the following more condensed description:-"The Essenes refer all things to God; they teach the immortality of the soul, and hold forth the reward of virtue to be most glorious. . They deserve to be admired beyond all other men who profess virtue, for their justice and equality. For in opposition to every selfish consideration, they make their goods common property, whence the rich has not greater command or enjoy. ment of his own than those who have no legal claim upon them. This practice has not obtained among the Greeks or barbarians for any length of time, nor in any individual instance, though it has been long established by the Essenes. The men who do these things exceed four thousand, maintaining withal neither wives,

This passage in the original is of great critical value, occurring as it does in a contemporary of the Apostles. "The reason," says Josephus, "is their constant sobriety (neepsis, 'abstinence') and measuring out their food and drink simply to satisfaction." No one can doubt the meaning of the word neepsis here.

In this connection, a passage from Philo may be reproduced, illustrating another form of the same Greek word occurring in the New Testament, both in its literal and figurative applications:"As the acute Plato holds, Envy (selfish unwillingness) stands outside the Divine assembly; while Wisdom, conversely, as being truly God like, is communicative and beneficent, never shutting up its school, but expanding (its doors) as with open wings, allures those who are thirsting for refreshing words. For this, she pours out the copious (unenvying) stream of twice pure (disakraton, twice unmingled) instruction, and induces men to be filled with her SOBER WINE" (methueinteen neephalian anapeithei metheen).

nor keeping slaves, as thinking the latter to be contrary to justice, and the former to be productive of domestic broils. As they live in a distinct community, they supply the place of slaves by cach administering to the wants of the other. They elect good and holy men to be stewards over their revenues, in order to provide corn, and a supply of such things as the ground produces. The course of life which they pursue is exempt from change or the caprices of fashion; and they bear some resemblance to the clans or communities said to subsist among the Dacians." The Essenes of whom these Jewish writers speak, are said to have been four thousand in number, but on the perusal of the whole account, it becomes evident that this estimate can hardly be meant to apply beyond the locality of Jerusalem, or to any but the rulers of the body. Who the Therapeuta were we have no exact contemporary authority, though Eusebius asserts that they were Christians. But it is needful to remember, that when Philo begins his description of these singular people, he expressly says that some of them were called Essenes.' If this word meant 'holy' or 'healing,' like hosios, and a kindred Syriac term, then it might have been applied to a select number of persons, who were either 'saints' or physicians, exclusive of a larger number of outstanding neophytes or probationers. Dean Prideaux, it appears to us, gives less weight to the authority of Philo than it deserves, and at the same time makes statements somewhat more precise than his author's language will warrant. He says:-" Philo, being a Jew of Alexandria, knew nothing of the Essenes of Judæa but what he had by hearsay; but with the Essenes of Egypt he was indeed much better acquainted; for although the principal seat of them was in Judæa, yet there were also of them in Egypt, and in all other places where the Jews were dispersed; and therefore Philo distinguished this sect into the Essenes of Judæa and Syria, and the Essenes of Egypt and other parts. The first he called practical Essenes, and the others he calls Therapeutic, or contemplative" (vol. ii. p. 379, seq.).

Nothing can certainly be determined as to the origin and signification of the name Essenes, but that of the Therapeuta' (healers), explains itself. They were, like our Lord, and all Oriental teachers and reformers of manners, physicians both of the body and soul. It should be recollected that John, the Nazarite and Baptist, had a large number of followers, adopting something of the mode of life pursued by these Essenes ; and there was, probably, some connection also with the Sabuæans (= Baptists), identified by Epiphanius (Op. i. p. 28) with the Essenes, and whose posterity according to Norberg, cited by Michaelis (Introd. iii. p. 285), have survived to our own day, claiming John for their great master. The same writer asserts that the Essenes were chiefly Samaritans.' When our Lord, in a season of persecution, went into the wilderness beyond Jordan, his teaching seems to have had a singular identification with the doctrines of the Essenes, on the subjects of marriage, divorce, and humility; yet at the same time, in utter antagonism to the diabolical doctrine of the Samaritan Simon, who had embraced the dualistic tenet which represented the creation of matter as a subordinate and evil deity—"there is none good but one, that is, God." Philo gives the following account:

"Palestine and Syria are not barren of honorable and good men, for there are considerable numbers of such scattered about, even compared with the very populous nation of the Jews. Among these are some whom they call Essæans, being in number about four thousand men, according to my opinion; they have their name by reason of their great piety, from the Greek word öd105, which signifies holy, though the derivation is not according to exact analogy. While they are most devoted servers and worshipers of God, they do not sacrifice unto Him any living creature, but rather choose to form their minds to be holy, thereby to present

them a fit offering unto Him. They chiefly live in country districts, avoiding cities by reason of the vices prevalent among citizens, being sensible that, as the breathing of a corrupted air engenders diseases, so the conversing with evil com. pany often produces an incurable contagion of the soul. Some of them labor in husbandry, others follow trades or manufacture, confining themselves, however, to the making of such things only as are utensils of peace, endeavoring thereby to benefit themselves and their neighbors. . . . You shall not find among their handicraftsmen any who ever put a hand to the making of arrows, or darts, or swords, or head-pieces, or corslets, or shields; neither any armor, or engines, or any other instruments of war; nay, they will not make such utensils of peace as are apt to be employed for mischievous purposes."

Referring to the Therapeute of Egypt, he states:-"Their drink is only water from the stream; . . . they eat only to satisfy hunger, and drink only to quench thirst, avoiding fulness of stomach, as that which is hurtful both to soul and body. At their feasts they drink no wine, but only pure water. . . . They abstain from wine, as reckoning it to be a sort of poison that leads men into madness; and from too plentiful fare, as that which breeds and creates inordinate and beastly appetites. While they thus sit at meat there is observed a most exact silence, none making the least noise; and when they have done eating, one of them proposes a question out of Holy Writ, which another answers, imparting what he knows in plain words, without affectation or aiming at praise.

"As to slaves, they have none; all are equally free, and all equally labor for the common good. The upholders of slavery they condemn as unjust and base despots, by whom are violated the sacred laws of Nature, who, like a common parent, has begotten all mankind without distinction, and seeks to educate them in the genuine bonds of fraternity, consisting not in name but in reality.”

Sodalities of this kind, teaching doctrines so just and true, and following prac tices so pure and good, necessarily modified at once the language and opinions, the character and habits of mankind around them. They were a people who lived a protest against the corruptions and errors of their time,—the lineal spiritual descendants of the prophets, the adapted forerunners of that Gospel which, under the sway of reason, is subservient in still higher measure to the same great ends of purity and freedom, though, alas! it has often become, in the hands of craft or ignorance, the instrument of quite contrary effects. Lust of power has perverted it into the apology for oppression, appetite into the excuse for sensuality; while 'spiritual despotism,' instead of obeying the injunction of its Author, and holding it up as the light of the world,' has put an extinguisher upon the Word, and used its authority as a torch for kindling the flames of persecution, and obscuring the reason of men with the smoke of superstition and the fumes of fanaticism.

Mr Conybeare, in his 'Life of St Paul,' justly observes of the Essenes, that 'we need not doubt that they did represent religious cravings which Christianity satisfied.' Their spiritual aspirations and their practical lives, incorporating at once many of the negative and positive virtues of Christianity, indicate a vast improvement upon the time when kings, princes, priests, and people alike 'erred through strong drink, and were altogether out of the way.' John the Baptist is the culminating point of this influence;-his public mission is the last event in that 'fitness and fulness of time' that made Christianity possible; and in the force and purity of his ministry, associated with his avowed office as the harbinger of the Messiah, we behold the purposes of Providence, uniting with the developments of history and of culture, to herald the inauguration of CHRIST in the Temple of Humanity.