Raoul de Fulke and his sons!" (Chap. i.) None but the purblind could thence infer that any gluttony,' or any wine-bibbing,' was right. (3) The application of this principle to other scriptural injunctions would lead to absurdity and immorality. Despise not thy mother when she is old' (Prov. xxiii. 22), would become a charter for despising our mothers when young! Oppress not the afflicted within thy gate' (Prov. xxii. 22), would be a license for wrong outside our doors! Once, in a Scottish paper, we saw an advertisement from a person to the effect that he wanted a second wife, though the first was living; alleging that he was only a deacon, and therefore the command to the bishop, 'husband of one wife,' so far from applying to him, implied that two might be the right thing for a nonbishop! Weisinger, the continuator of Olshausen's Commentary, says expressly, "The qualification, 'husband of one wife,' professedly implies a special reference to the bishop, for this is not required of all." The morality of our age, the instincts of purity, fortunately unite in repudiating this monstrous distortion of language. He adds, Abstinence, prudence, and modesty denote qualities such as especially befit a bishop." Very true, but the correct inference is not that other people are exempt from the obligation and advantages of those virtues because they are, for special reasons, imposed in the mandatory shape on bishops.

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5. "But," persist other objectors, "the fact that the apostles direct deacons and deaconesses not to be given to much wine, certainly implies that some intoxicating wine is permissible, if it does not pronounce it to be good."

This is a treble mistake, of history, of inference, and of criticism. For (1) it assumes that, in fact, nothing but intoxicating wine was abused or capable of abuse in antiquity, which is contrary to the plainest testimony. When Cratinus in his Ulysseses,' quoted by Athenæus (iii. 56), says,

6

"You were all day glutting yourselves with white milk";

6

and Solomon declares that much honey is not good'; we must assume at once the fact of abuse, and the non-alcoholic nature of the substances abused. Amphis, in his 'Uranus,' says,—

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Sating herself till eve with every dainty,"

which is a phrase parallel to the well-known line of Isaiah,

"Tarry till night, till wine inflame them,"

you such advice. But good men have got drunk. Noah was a good man; Lot was a good man; yet they both got drunk. You tell me our Lord said, 'Be not overcharged with drunkenness.' Mind, He did not say, Do not get drunk, but 'be not overcharged with it.' Now can't you get drunk without being dead drunk? But, you reply, St Paul says, 'Be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess.' Observe here, again, he does not say, 'Be not drunk,' but be not excessively drunk.' Observe, too, he says, 'Be not drunk with wine,'-he does not prohibit spirits. So you may get drunk on beer, or brandy, even to excess, without violating this injunction." In the old English poem of Piers Plowman, in the alehouse scene, the goodwife charges her daughter not to get drunk often, for that would be a reproach to her. Is the modern inference just, that occasional crapulence would be meritorious or innocent?

but conveying no idea of intoxicating quality. Fondness for gorging, with sweets and dainties, was one of the vices of the ancient Greeks. Damoxenus, in his 'Syntrophe' (Ath. iii. 61), says they

"Who look most solemn in the promenades,

Know, for all that, the fish's daintiest part,
And make men marvel at their gluttony."

Hence (2) the inference falls to the ground, because the historic premiss is a network too wide for the special fact; and it is, moreover, not valid in form. (3) The critical blunder is exposed in this COMMENTARY, p. 368.

There are also numerous assumptions, which we may designate specially as false facts of interpretation, to which the tippling critics cling with an absurd tenacity. A few samples must here suffice: for others we refer to the text of our COMMENTARY.

:

1. The Saturday Review, in noticing a pamphlet by a provincial physician, says :- "Unfermented wine is a myth; the pure blood of the grape is but a transient product of the vine-and, in the words of Dr Barclay, 'quite impossible' to preserve"!

Now we have not only preserved such wine, imported from Florence, for sixteen years together, but we have induced an able chemist to prepare such wine extensively for both medical and sacramental uses; hence, if Dr Barclay be right, so far from miracles having ceased, their product can be purchased at 24s. per dozen.. The 'impossible' has been achieved; and in the Exhibition Book of Prizes this impossible wine actually received 'honorable mention.'* For many years past such wine has also been made at a vineyard in the neighborhood of Cincinnati. Inspissated wine has been spoken of in all ages, and is amongst the commonest products of wine countries, and is still called sabe. A respected minister amongst the Society of Friends, Mr Robert Alsop, in a letter to ourselves, under the date of 1861, thus writes:

"The syrup of grape-juice is an article of domestic manufacture in almost every house in the vine districts of the south of France. It is simply the juice of the grape boiled down to the consistence of treacle. This syrup is, in those parts, the common medium for making family preserves; and a great variety of fruit and other vegetable products are so embalmed, such as fresh figs, almonds, peaches, plums, melons, pumpkins, tomatoes, etc. As to the use of [ordinary] wine, it is almost entirely confined to the men. It is proverbial that if a young woman is known to be in the habit of using it, she is unlikely to receive proposals of marriage."

2. It is frequently urged, "The old wine is better than the new, and therefore owes its superiority to the process of fermentation."

Dr Hassall's report in the Lancet contains the following passage:-" Mr F. Wright (of Kensington) exhibits what he calls Sacramental or Passover wine, which consists of the unfermented juice of the grape, and is made to meet the views of those ministers who believe that the wine used at the institution of the Sacrament was unfermented, and consisted simply of the expressed juice of the grape. It forms a very palatable beverage."

This is an inference from a solitary premiss, and therefore invalid. The objector probably assumes that nothing but alcohol can give superior flavor. This is a mistake, since unfermented wine also improves by age, for a reason well known to chemists. In the preparation of scents and other volatile principles, as well as in the bottling of grape-juice, the sapid particles get too intimately mingled with the bulk of the liquid to be detected so fully by the taste; but by being kept, and kept quiet, they are again liberated, and impinge more perceptibly upon the nerves of the palate. Mr Wright's old passover wine is, therefore, sensibly better than the new. Moreover, the flavors and aromas of wines, which determine their price, are not in any ratio to their fermentation or their alcohol.

3. It is said, "The new skin-bottles of the ancients allowed the elastic gases of the fermenting liquid to expand them, and therefore they did not burst and spill the wine."

This is a delusion, for the strongest hide of hog or ox, formed into a bottle and filled with grape-juice that had begun to ferment, would, if closed up, be burst asunder as with imprisoned steam; and if not closed, then the old bottle would run no risk of rending.* A cubic inch of sugar, transformed into carbonic acid gas, occupies a space of probably forty times as much.

4. "There is but one kind of wine, because 'wine' is defined in the dictionaries as the fermented juice of the grape."

This is not true of the oldest dictionaries, and the modern ores cannot settle the usage of words in ancient times-but only induction from the literature of antiquity.† A modern lexicon may define wine as 'the fermented juice of the grape,' but what said the greatest of the logicians of the thirteenth century-Thomas Aquinas? Discoursing (the original can be seen in Migne's Patrologia, 4th book, 74th sec. 5th art.) of the proper substance to be used in the eucharist, he says, "Grape-juice (mustum) has the specific quality of wine"-speciem vini. The objector falls into the fallacy of excluding the 'mare' from the genus 'horse'; for, though fermented-juice is 'wine,' it is so not to the exclusion of the first form of wine-namely, the unfermented juice. That the 'Angelical Doctor' was right, usage will show:—

Hippocrates (B.C. 400), in his work on diet, says,

“Glukus is less fitted to make the head heavy.. than OTHER WINE (oinòdeos).” Athenæus, the Grammarian (A.D. 280), in his 'Banquet' (lib. i. s. 54),

"The force of fermenting wine is very great, being able, if closely stopped up, to burst through the strongest cask."-(Chambers's Cyclopædia, art. 'Wine,' 1750.) "The way to preserve NEW WINE in the state of must is to put it up in very strong but small casks, firmly closed on all sides, by which means it will be kept from fermenting. But if it should happen to fall into fermentation, the only way to stop it is by the fume of sulphur."-(Miller, Gardener's Dictionary, art. 'Wine,' 1748.) See further, Works of Dr Lees, ii. p. 158, and elsewhere.

See translations from the ancient and classic authors, Greek and Roman, p. 434. Also various portions of this COMMENTARY, showing the application of words for wine' in Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, Latin, etc., to 'grapes,' 'grape-juice,' 'boiled grape-juice,' etc.

"The Mitylenæans have a sweet wine (glukun OINON), what they call prodromos, and others call it protropos.'

And again (ii. 24), he says to the dyspeptic tippler,—

"Let him take sweet wine, either mixed with water or warmed, especially that kind called protropos, the sweet Lesbian glukus, as being good for the stomach; for sweet WINE (oinos) does not make the head heavy."

Dioscorides (A.D. 90), in his 'Materia Medica,' expressly ranks the Roman SAPA, 'boiled wine'-Hebrew, sovai or sobai-under the "genus VINI.'

Suidas, Lexiconist (950), defines sweet wine thus:

"GLEUKOS―to apostalagma tees staphulees prin pateesthee— the droppings from the grapes before being trodden.'

Dr Avenarius, Hebrew Lexiconist (1588), defines———

"AHSIS, mustum, recently expressed and sweet.

German sus: sussur WEIN."

Lord Bacon, in his 'Natural History' (1597), says,—

"As wines which at first pressing run gently, yield a more pleasant taste, so observations which flow from Scripture gently expressed and naturally expounded are most wholesome and sweet."

Parkinson (1640), in the 'Theatrum Botanicum,' says,

"The juyce or liquor pressed out of the ripe grapes, is called VINUM, wine.Of it is made both SAPA and DEFRUTUM, in English Cute, that is to say BOILED WINE, and both made of mustum, NEW WINE; the latter boyled to the halfe, the former to the third part.'

Lyttleton, in his 'Latine Dictionary' (Lond. 1678), says,—

"MUSTUM, Sc. Vinum. Hebrew, matz, expressit. Muston, vinum cadis recens inclusum. Gleukos, oinos neos, new wine. Angl. 'Stum, i. e. NEW WINE close shut up, and not suffered to work."

W. Robertson, M.A., Cambridge (1693), in 'Phraselogia Generalis,'— "WINE; Vinum, MERUM.-New WINE, Mustum.-New WINE that runs out without pressing; Mustum lixivium.-WINE prest, VINUM tortivum.-WINE yet on the tree; VINUM pendens."

The Glossarium of Carolo du Fresne (Tomus sextus, Paris, 1736),— "VINUM COCTUM. Gallic, vin cuit. VINUM DE PURA GUTTA. Gall., De mèregoutte [mother-drop]. VINUM protropum est vinum sponte defluens, ante-quam uva calcatur. Mustum, VINUM PEDE PRESSUM. Quod pede tantum calcatur, medium inter vinum sponte defluens," etc.

J. M. Gesner, the critic, in index to 'Scriptores Rei Rusticæ veteres Latini' (1730), says,

"Once for all it must be observed, that the words vinum, vitis, uvæ, and vinea, as kindred terms, are sometimes used synonymously. The juice of apples, pears, pomegranates [as in Cant. viii. 2], and sorbs, was called vinum." [Alfieri, in his Dizionario (Venice, 1751), shows that this use is still preserved in part in Italian, as it also is in German :-"VINO, a liquor well known, extracted from the fruit of the vine. VINOSO, juicy, full of wine. Uva vinosa, grapes full of wine. MOSTO, vin nuovo, must."]

E. Chambers, F.R.S., in his 'Cyclopædia' (6th Ed. 1750), has the following, a mere translation from an older French Dictionary :

“WINE, in France, is distinguished into-Mère-goutte, mother-drop'; which is 'the VIRGIN-WINE,'-which runs of itself out of a tap in the vat. Must, surmust, or stum; which is the WINE or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been trod. Pressed WINE, VIN de pressurage,' is that squeezed with a press out of the

grapes. Sweet WINE, VIN doux,' is that which has not yet fermented. Natural WINE is such as comes from the grape, without mixture. Burnt WINE is that boiled up with sugar. There is also a sort of Malmsey WINE, made by boiling of Muscadine."

Dr Lueneman, in his 'Wörterbuch' (Leipzig, 1780), has

"Mustum i. n. der Most junge WEIN [new wine]. Vinea, ein Weinberg, WEINgarten.-Vinolentus, voll WEIN [full of wine. Böttger's Wörterbuch has -"Junger WEIN, new wine. WEIN-Keltern, to press grapes. WEIN-BEERE, grape (wine-berry). WEIN-beer-saft (wine-berry juice). WEIN-ernte, vine-harvest. WEIN-traube, grape-cluster."]

The London Encyclopædia,' published in 1829, says,—

"Rhenish must is of two kinds. That made without boiling is only put up so close that it cannot work; this is called stum wine"-stum being evidently a contraction from mustum, like 'bus from omnibus.

Dr Webster, the American, in his great 'Dictionary' (1828), has"Must, new wine-wine pressed from the grape, but not fermented." [In this definition he is only following Johnson, and others still older. B. Blount, in his 'Glossographia' (1670), has "New wine, that first pressed out of the grape.' E. Phillips, in his World of Words' (1671), has "Wine newly pressed from the grape."]

Dr Ure, F.R.S., the chemist, in 'Dictionary of Arts' (1836), says,— Juice, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called must, and in common language, SWEET WINE.'

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F. E. J. Valpy, M.A., in 'Etymological Dictionary' (1838), has"Mustus, new, fresh, young. Hence Mustum, i. e. VINUM, fresh WINE-as Merum for Merum VINUM."

Baron Liebig, in 'Letters on Chemistry' (2nd series, 1844), wrote,"If a flask be filled with grape-juice and made air-tight, and then kept for a few hours in boiling water, THE WINE does not ferment" (p. 198).

"The fermentation of WINE and of beer-wort are not isolated phenomena." "The WINE is left to ferment. One of the WINE-growers of the Duchy," etc. The Popular Cyclopædia (1846), which is a translation from the German Conversation Lexicon,' has the following :

"MUST, the juice of the grape. In wine countries this unfermented sweet must is distinguished from the sour must, or unripe wine of a year old. It can be kept in close vessels after the mucilage has been precipitated"-[or settled on its lees]. "WINE. There is only one species of wine [protropos] made without beating, treading, or pressing; this is what they call in Spain lagrima [tears]. The grapes, melting with ripeness, are suspended in bunches, and the wine is the produce of the droppings. The juice of the grape, when newly expressed, and before it has begun to ferment, is called MUST, and, in common language, sussur wein [SWEET WINE]. It is turbid, has an agreeable and very saccharine taste."

Dr W. Freund, in his Wörterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache' (Leipzig, 1845), has

"VINdemia [vino-demo, 'to draw wine from ']; I. Vintage; II. Transf. (a) Grapes, wine; (6) pl. vintage-season; (c) harvest of similar things, as oil-olive, honey, etc.

“VINUM, digammated from oinos, wine. "MUSTUM, new or unfermented wine."

5.

Transf. (a) grapes ; (b) fruit-wine.

"Some classical scholars-whose scientific education, however,

has been neglected-have objected that "the juice of the grape con

f