terests are antagonistic; in some ways complementary. Without some distinction of individuals, a group which we can neither actually see nor hear, tends to become a mere abstraction. Partial individualization, not obscuring the group, is found in the Shakespearian formula, "first citizen," etc. Concerted speech, mentioned in Section 19, is an artificial method of unifying the mental and moral characteristics of the group.

Considered as a unit, a group may be characterized in many respects like an individual; but it tends to become typical, it rarely appears more than a few times with ab solute identity, and it does not often embody any elaborate study of mental or moral development.

CHAPTER VII

SUBJECT-MATTER

103. Subject-Matter and Form. In the entire novel, and in its separate passages, the main interest of the author or the critic may be concentrated upon either of these elements, or it may be concerned with their intimate, complex relations. In every type of literature, all the subject-matter is given linguistic form. In the novel, if a subject is considered for its service to the plot, its relation to the illusion, one is concerned with novelistic form; when the emphasis is laid on thought for its own sake, one studies thematic values which are essentially the same in all forms of art. The ideal relation, for most critics, is found only when a significant subject is "bodied forth" in an appropriate and significant form.

The subject landscape, when introduced simply as a background for incident, has primarily a formal value; when made a topic of conversation by the characters, its value may be partly formal, partly thematic; when discussed for its own sake, in the author's comment, the value may be almost purely thematic. In the novel of pure dramatic structure, every subject is, in the first instance, formal — subordinate to the characters and the situation.

In the short story and the romance, the interest in form is often more complete and continuous than in the novel. The terms "tale" and "story" suggest the predominance of form; the terms "study," "purpose-novel," etc., imply a larger attention to subject-matter for its own sake. Allegory and symbolism, at their best, attain a rich harmony of the two interests. Examine the relations of subject and form in seminovelistic works, such as the philosophical dialogue of Plato and his imitators, the "letter-essay," Toxophilus, The Complete Angler, etc.

104. Extensive and Intensive Subject. The novelist, to some extent, must choose between the consideration of a large variety of subjects, and the detailed study of a more limited field. He may choose gladly, instinctively, or with a sense of artistic renunciation. He may attempt to combine an extensive survey in general with an intensive treatment of specific subjects; but a novel is not often of equal value as a “large diffused picture" of life (Smollett) and as a profound study of a concentrated theme. This distinction may be kept in mind throughout the present chapter.

105. The Typical and the Individual. — Typification is an important method of enlarging the scope of a novel without losing the force of an intensive treatment. Any "section of life" may be interpreted in such manner as to bring out the values of an historical period, of the general organization of society, or of human experience as a whole; as a robin may be studied as representative of the thrushes, of all bird-life, or of the vertebrates. This typical quality may be clearly expressed by the novelist, or it may be merely suggested to the reader. It may be found in all the elements of the novel-in setting, conversation, motivation, as well as in incident and character.

106. Exhibition and Interpretation. The selection of certain data rather than others, the proportion of emphasis upon those chosen, and the moulding of them into the unity of a plot, give a real interpretation of life in every novel. Beyond this inevitable "criticism of life" the novelist may be as silent as possible, or he may consider his direct interpretation as equally important with the picture itself.

The various "isms " of the schools may be compared from this point of view. A frank statement of impressionism, as offering an array of human phenomena without any attempt to explain their real meaning,

is quoted from Thomas Hardy, on page 303. The chief value of the philosophical novel is in its effort to give some unified explanation of all the material it brings together. Note the opinions of Masson and Scherer quoted in Section 119, and Lotze's definition of art, in Section 208.

107. The Subject of the Novel. Probably few critics would oppose the idea that the principal subject of every true novel is humanity, in one or more of its infinite aspects; and this in a sense which really distinguishes the novel from most if not all other forms of art. All art is an expression of the humanity of the artist himself, but the novelist always, in large measure, discovers his humanity by observation of the life of other men.

The question, just what aspect of this vast subject is the true field of the novel, cannot be so easily answered. Two theories which can be clearly distinguished consider, respectively, the life of society and the life of the individual to be the essential theme of the novel. These two views are not necessarily antagonistic, and in every great novel there is matter enough on both themes to repay separate study.

The following outline of analysis must be treated flexibly, and adapted to the needs of a concrete study. For more systematic analysis of specific phases of subject-matter, reference must be made to the underlying sciences of sociology, psychology, history, and ethics.

108. Sociology and History. The novel does not consider humanity in the abstract, as a scientific Genus Homo, or a dramatic Everyman; but as it appears in some limited social and historical relations. The sociological interest concerns those forms of social organization and life that are comparatively permanent; the historical interest takes account of the conditions belonging to a particular period and locality.1 Both of these interests are important in

1 See Giddings, p. 8.

every representative novel, but now one predominates, now the other. It might be said that the artistic imagination inclines toward the transitory phases of human experience, toward the contrasts and shadings which history continually affords; and that the scientific mind finds a deeper satisfaction in examining the permanent elements in social life.

In the Comédie Humaine, the inclusive scheme is historical - the primary aim being to picture the French society of a limited epoch; but there is a very rich exhibition of general social relations. In Anna Karénina, the sociological study seems more significant than the purely historical; while in the novels of Turgenieff, the temporary conditions of Russian life are brought more decidedly into the foreground. Scott's interest is often historical in the main; while George Eliot is always deeply interested in the permanent aspects of society, even when she studies historical variations in some detail.

109. Social Composition. -The importance of social composition in the novel is partly indicated by the list of types given in the appendix. In the representative social novel there is much interpretation as well as exhibition of the organization of social groups. While comprehensiveness requires some attention to all the chief types of social groups, many of the characteristics of man as a "socius" may be studied in any one group; - the family, for instance, may be viewed as a kind of social microcosm. Many of the great European novels, however, are international in scope of subject.

The Family. The root idea of the family may be found in the relations of man and wife, or of parents and children.

A comprehensive survey of family organization is found in Anna Karénina. This novel exhibits the relation of master and servants, husband and wife, man and mistress, sister and brother, parents and children, etc. Its principal limitation, in this theme, is that most of the family life shown is in the aristocratic circles of society..