(Philadelphia 1905); Round, 'Feudal England' (London 1909); Seebohm, The English Village Community) (London 1883); Seignobos, "Feudal Régime, translated by Dow (New York 1908); Stubbs, Constitutional History of England' (Vol. I, 1897 ed.); Waitz, 'Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte) (1843-78).

FEUERBACH, foi'er-bäн, Anselm, German painter: b. Spires, 12 Sept. 1829; d. Venice, 4 Jan. 1880. He studied at the art schools of Düsseldorf and Munich, and later at Antwerp and Paris. He worked at Carlsruhe, Venice, Rome and Vienna. His Roman period was productive of several splendid works, in which are apparent his close study of the Italian masters. He became professor at the Vienna Academy in 1873, but disappointed at the reception of one of his works resigned and removed to Venice. Among his principal works are 'Iphigenia (Stuttgart); Dante at Ravenna' (Carlsruhe); Medea' (Munich); The Concert' (Berlin); The Battle of the Amazons,' 'Pieta' (Munich); Symposium of Plato' (Carlsruhe); Ariosto at Ferrara (Munich).

FEUERBACH, foi'ĕr-bäн, Ludwig Andreas, German philosopher: b. Landshut, Bavaria, 28 July 1804; d. 13 Sept. 1872; the fourth son of the illustrious jurist, Paul Johann Anselm Feuerbach. After a secondary education he studied divinity at Heidelberg and Berlin, but fell under the sway of Hegel and took his doctor's degree in philosophy. After a brief period as privatdozent in Erlangen, he became persona non grata on account of an heretical pamphlet embodying 'Thoughts on Death and Immortality. From a follower of Hegel he developed rapidly into an out-and-out freethinker and democrat. Besides a more technical "History of Modern Philosophy) and a monograph on Leibnitz he wrote reviews and essays for the most radical periodical of the time, Arnold Ruge's Jahrbücher. In 1841 appeared his most significant work The Essence of Christianity (translated by George Eliot), which won him a place among the foremost advanced thinkers of the day. He entered into correspondence with Karl Marx and is indeed regarded by Socialists as a precursor of their classic authorities. He sympathized with the revolutionary uprising of 1848 but took no active part beyond delivering a course of lectures to the Heidelberg students on the "Essence of Religion." During the dark period of reaction his prestige waned but he continued his researches into the nature of religion, producing in 1857 the 'Theogonie,' in which unfulfilled desire was defined as the core of religious feeling. Financial failure threatened him in 1860, but the loyalty of his friends saved him from actual want and in the last few years of his life he was once more able to attack in a volume on 'God, Freedom, Immortality,' the religious problems to which he had so persistently devoted himself.

Feuerbach was not a systematic philosopher and became progressively more averse to metaphysics, developing an affection for the methods of natural science and a popular, vivid style, though at times marred by diffuseness and dithyrambs. As an absolutely honest and uncompromising champion of free-thought and political liberalism he exerted a tremendous influence both on Socialists and natural scien

VOL. 11-11

tists of the materialistic school. He has been appropriately compared to a powerful ferment. Richard Wagner, Ferdinand Lassalle and Gottfried Keller are among those who were deeply stirred by his writings. Feuerbach's philosophy of religion is remarkable for the bold assumption of a purely psychological point of view, while historical problems and social factors (as Marx pointed out) are ignored. The neglect of concrete historical conditions distinguishes his method of approach from that of Strauss, while his concentration on individual psychology required supplementing by modern sociological and ethnological considerations. Nevertheless, the insistence on the purely human rather than metaphysical aspects of the problem marked an epoch-making departure in the history of the subject. His essays on The Necessity of a Reformation of Philosophy,' 'Preliminary Theses,' and 'Principles of a Philosophy of the Future) (1842-43) are remarkable anticipations of modern pragmatism with the emphasis on democratic aspirations.

Bibliography. Bolin, Wilhelm, 'Ludwig Feuerbach, seine Wirken und seine Zeitgenossen' (Stuttgart 1891); Grün, Karl, Ludwig Feuerbach in seinem Briefwechsel und Nachlass (Leipzig 1874); Jodl, Friedrich, Ludwig Feuerbach (Stuttgart 1904); Kohut, Adolph, 'Ludwig Feuerbach' (Leipzig 1909).

ROBERT H. LOWIE,

American Museum of Natural History. FEUERBACH, Paul Johann Anselm von, powl yo'hän än'zelm fon, German jurist and criminal law reformer: b. Hainichen, near Jena, 14 Nov. 1775; d. Frankfort-on-Main, 29 May 1833. He was professor at Jena (1801), Kiel (1802), Landshut (1804); planned a new penal code for Bavaria, which was enunciated in 1813, and was subsequently adopted by other governments. He was later president of the Court of Appeals at Anspach. Among his best-known works are 'Critique of Natural Law (1796); 'Anti-Hobbes' (1798); 'Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland geltenden peinlichen Privatrechts' (1801); Merkwürdige Kriminalrechtsfälle) (1808-11); 'Kaspar Hauser: An Instance of a Crime Against a Soul' (1832). His works rendered notable service in the humanizing of judicial punishment and in paving the way for a psychological treatment of criminal cases.

FEUILLANTS, fe-yon, in ecclesiastical history, a religious order clothed in white and going barefoot, and a branch of the Cistercians. Their name was derived from an abbey, founded about 1145 in the diocese of Rieux and called first Fuliens, later Les Feuillans. In 1577 the abbot, Jean de la Barrière, introduced reforms in order to weed out the relaxations which had crept in, and from then on the Feuillants lived under the strict observance of the rule of Saint Bernard. In 1589 they were established as a Separate Congregation by a brief of Pope Sixtus V, who two years before had given them a church in Rome. In the same year, 1587, King Henry III of France also built a monastery for them in Paris. In 1595 Clement VIII deprived the Cistercians of all control over the Feuillants. A second monastery was given to them in Rome in 1598. Pope Urban VIII in 1630 decreed the separation of the French and Italian branches of the order; the former con

tinued to be known as Feuillants; the latter were called reformed Bernardines and finally combined with the order of Cêteaux. At the outbreak of the French Revolution the order had 24 abbeys in France. These were suppressed in 1791, a fate which was also suffered by the convents of nuns, known under the name of Feuillantines because they had embraced the same rules after the first of them had been established in 1588 by Jean de la Barrière. The Paris monastery was taken possession of by a club celebrated in the political history of France under the name of the Feuillants. It was a weak rival of the Jacobin Club, and fell before the clamor of a mob in March 1791.

FEUILLET, Octave, ōk-täv fè-ya, French novelist and dramatist: b. Saint Lo, Manche, 11 Aug. 1821; d. Paris, 29 Dec. 1890. Between 1848 and 1858 he gained a good deal of notice with his novels and a series of comedies and tales, some of which were published in the Revue des Deux Mondes. In 1857 the appearance of 'Le Roman d'un Jeune Homme Pauvre raised Feuillet to first rank of the novelists of the day, and it was immediately dramatized by the author himself. Next followed 'Histoire de Sibylle (1862), and in the year in which it appeared Feuillet was elected to the French Academy. Among his other numerous novels are Monsieur de Camors' (1867); Julia de Trécœur (1872); Un Mariage dans le Monde) (1875); Le Journal d'une Femme (1878); Histoire d'une Parisienne' (1881); 'La Morte (1886); Le Divorce de Juliette' (1884); 'Honneur d'Artiste' (1890). His works have a refined humor, and are free, especially the earlier, from coarseness. He was a master in depicting the fine shades of emotion and character; his creations are distinctly individualized, his society women being remarkably lifelike; his later works are marked by a growing cynicism of outlook. His dramas met with considerable success, but they are on the whole inferior to his novels and have not survived. Feuillet's Theatre Complet' appeared in 1892– 93. Consult Deries, L., Octave Feuillet' (Saint Lô 1902).

FEUILLETON, fe'ye-tôn ("leaflet"), the literary section of a French newspaper, usually appearing on the lower portion of the first page. It includes essays, criticisms and fiction, the latter of the serial type. In America the so-called "magazine section" of a daily paper corresponds to the feuilleton. Bertin the elder invented the system in France.

FÉVAL, fă-väl, Paul Henri Corentin, French novelist: b. Rennes, 28 Nov. 1817; d. Paris, 8 March 1887. He first studied law and was admitted to the bar of his native city, but soon went to Paris unable to resist his desire to write. His first story, Club des phogues' (1841), and others, having given him some note, he was offered a large sum to write, under the pseudonym "SIR FRANCIS TROLOPP" (as though an Englishman), a sensational story "The Mysteries of London,' after the manner of Sue's Mysteries of Paris.' It was done in 11 volumes (Paris 1844), was immensely successful, widely translated and put on the stage. He remained a very fertile, spirited and popular writer, often dramatized, with long runs and left more than 200 volumes from his pen. Especially successful were 'Le Loup Blanc'

(Paris 1843, London 1847); 'Les Amours de Paris' (Paris 1845, London 1856); 'La Quittance de Minuit' (Paris 1846); Le Fils du Diable (Paris 1847); 'Histoire des Tribunaux Secrets (8 vols., Paris 1851); 'Compagnous du Silence' (Paris 1857); Mme. Gil Blas' (Paris 1857); 'Le Bossu, ou le Petit Parisien' (Paris 1857, London and New York 1863); Jean le Diable' (Paris 1868); 'Les Merveilles du Mont Saint Michel' (Paris 1880). During most of his life a freethinker, he was later converted and became an ardent Catholic. As a result he revised his works and issued a collection of them in 44 volumes (Paris 1877-83). After his death a new edition of his collected works was brought out (38 vols., Paris 1895). In spite of his many successes and the big editions through which many of his books went, he spent the latter years of his life in comparative poverty, having twice lost, through unwise investments, a large fortune. Consult Buet, C., Paul Féval, Souvenirs d'un Ami' (Paris 1887); Delaigue, A., 'Un Homme de Letters, Paul Féval (Paris 1890); Mirecourt, E. de, Paul Féval' (in 'Les Contemporains,' Paris 1857).

FEVER, a condition in which the temperature of the body is above normal. The average daily range of temperature in men is from 98° to 99° F., and in women from quarter to half a degree higher. In children temporary elevation even as high as 100° F. may occur from conditions of excitement and from over-exercise, but this should not be termed fever. Slight daily variations in temperature are usual. Thus the maximum temperature occurs usually from 5 to 9 P.M. There is then, as a rule, during sleep a decrease until a minimum is reached, some time between 2 and 4 A.M. It is probable that diminished muscular activity and lessened food absorption are responsible for much of this variation. Temperature usually rises during strong muscular exercise and also after a meal. These slight rises are balanced by heat-loss from increased perspiration. The temperature of man in the tropics and in the Arctic zone does not vary more than 1° C. (For discussion of bearable extremes of heat and cold, heatproduction, heat-loss and the nervous mechanism that controls the general phenomena, see ANIMAL HEAT).

Modern pathology teaches that fever is the index of a reaction of the human body in its struggle with some foreign invader and is brought about by excessive oxidation and diminished heat-loss. Fever is usually accompanied by an increase in the number of respirations, by an increased number of contractions of the heart, raised pulse-rate, an increase in the blood-tension in the blood vessels and by other symptoms of general malaise. These are headache, dry mouth, dry skin and at times increased mental excitement. Fever from this point of view is a conservative process and is nature's own method of overcoming some form of infection or intoxication. Fever as a general process should be distinguished from the many special kinds of so-called fevers that are described. Thus the term fever as used in typhoid fever, scarlet fever, lung fever, etc., is a relic of earlier medical teachings, in which the rise in temperature was considered the essential part of the disease. It is now recog

nized that fever is only one of the features in the general history of the development of the disease-process. The height of the temperature during fever may vary considerably. If the temperature is not above 100° F. (37.7° C.), it is spoken of as light fever; when between 100° and 103° F. (37.7° and 39.4° C.) it is called moderate fever; between 103° and 105° F. (39.4° and 40.5° C.) it is spoken of as high fever; while above 105° F. (40.5° C.) hyperpyrexia is the term that is applied. Temperatures as high as 110° F. have been recorded in patients who have recovered. The course of most fevers is, for purposes of convenience, divided into (1) the initial stage, which usually starts with chilliness and often with a distinct chill; (2) the hot stage, when the temperature has risen and is at a fairly constant normal, during which the blood vessels at the surface are dilated, the skin is flushed and feels hot and dry; this condition perhaps lasting a few hours, or it may be several weeks, according to the disease-processes that produce it; and (3) the terminal stage. This may be ushered in by a previous perspiration, with sometimes increased urination and prompt subsidence of the temperature; or the temperature may slowly sink to normal by a process of lysis. Each type of diseaseprocess manifests its own peculiar temperaturevariation and the study of temperature-curves is extremely important in the determination of the disease.

Fever results not so much from an increase in the heat-production alone, but in a disturbance of the heat-regulation or thermotaxis for it is perhaps true that the amount of heat produced by an athlete in a mile run is vastly greater than that produced throughout the entire four weeks of a severe typhoid fever yet the heat-loss keeps pace in the runner with the heat-production. It is the relation between these two factors that is disturbed in fever. Fever is largely a conservative process and a moderate degree of temperature is believed to be rather beneficial than harmful. The real danger in fever is not the temperature, unless it is excessively high-from 104° to 105° F.but it is the poison that is being made in the body, either by perverted metabolism or by bacterial or chemical intoxication. Therefore, in the treatment of disease with rise in temperature the reduction of the fever is not the only point to be attained. During fever there is increased oxidation, increased elimination of uric acid, diminution of most of the secretions, notably the saliva, the gastric juice, the bile and, save in the terminal stages, the sweat. The kidney-secretion is also decreased during the hot stage, because more water is being lost through the skin and lungs than usual. Changes in the blood are constant and usually consist in an increase in the number of leucocytes, or white blood-cells. High temperatures may produce degeneration in a number of tissues of the human body. The most important ones are those of the nerve-cells. These changes may take place if the temperature gets above 105° F., and even lower temperatures acting for a very long time may cause serious structural changes in the nervous system. The treatment of fever, as has been indicated, should mean the treatment of the disease that is causing the fever and will be considered under each particular topic of fever. (See MALARIA;

MENINGITIS; PATHOLOGY; RELAPSING FEVER; SCARLET FEVER; TYPHOID FEVER; TYPHUS FEVER; YELLOW FEVER). Consult Hektoen, 'American Text-book of Pathology (1901); Schäfer, 'Text-book of Physiology' (1900).

FEVER-BUSH (Benzoin benzoin), an American shrub of the laurel family (Lauracea). It grows from 4 to 20 feet high, in moist woods and along streams from Massachusetts, through Ontario, to Michigan, south to Kansas, and eastward to North Carolina. An infusion of the sweet-smelling bark is used as a tonic in fevers. The bright_berries of the tree, ripe in August and September, are sometimes ground and used as spice, for which reason it is locally called spice-bush or wild allspice. It is also known as Benjamin-bush. The name fever-bush is also applied to the Ilex verticillata.

FEVERWORT (Triosteum perfoliatum), a perennial of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae), a native of North America, where its dried and roasted berries have been occasionally used as a substitute for coffee; its roots act as an emetic and mild cathartic. The plant grows in rich soil from Quebec westward to Minnesota, and south to Kansas, Kentucky and Alabama. It has a number of common names, and is known locally as fever-root, horsegentian, wood ipecac, tinker's root, wild coffee, etc.

FEWKES, fūks, Jesse Walter, American anthropologist: b. Newton, Mass., 14 Nov. 1850. He was graduated from Harvard in 1875, took degrees A.M. and Ph.D. in 1877; University of Arizona, LL.D. 1915. Studied with Louis Agassiz at Penikeese in 1873, and was for 10 years at the Maine Laboratory of Alexander Agassiz at Newport, R. I. He was assistant curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., 1880-89; and has been ethnologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, since 1895. He has written extensively on marine zoology, ethnology and archæology of American Indians. He was editor of the Journal of the American Ethnology and Archæology 1881-94; and was in charge of the excavations of the Casa Grande in southern Arizona, Spruce-tree House, Cliff Palace and Sun Temple in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. He is member of many ethnological societies, including the American Society, American Academy of Arts and Sciences and National Academy of Sciences; Knights of Isabella the Catholic, and recipient of a gold medal from King Oscar of Sweden for researches in anthropology.

FEYD, John. See FYT, JOHN.

FEYEN, fa-yän, Eugène, French painter: b. Bey-sur-Seille, Meurthe-et-Moselle, France, 13 Nov. 1815; d. 1908; one of the many successful, pupils of Paul Delaroche. While he began as a painter of portraits and of the nude, he gradually drifted into genre subjects, which were evidently congenial to his talent, and his pictures of the seaside and the fisher folk are distinguished for clever composition and refreshing color. "The Harvesters of the Sea (1872, in the Luxembourg); 'The Bay of Cancale' (1885); and The Sailor's Sweetheart' (1890) are his best works. He was created a chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1881.

FEYER-PERRIN, fā-yā-pè-răn, François Nicolas Augustin, French painter: b. Bey-surSeille, Meurthe-et-Moselle, 1829; d. Paris, 14 Oct. 1888. He began his career as an artist in the drawing school at Nancy and subsequently attached himself to the studios of Cogniet and Delaroche at Paris. At first he hesitated in choosing a specialty between subjects of poetic allegory, genre subjects, or varying race type, or historic painting. Since 1864 he has confined himself to painting the scenery and people of the seashore, especially in Brittany. His work has been successful, because it is distinguished by poetic feeling, delicate characterization and transparently brilliant coloring. His most famous pictures are in the Luxembourg, namely, 'The Return from Oyster-fishing' (1874) and (The Fisher-girls of Cancale at the Spring (1873).

FEYJOO Y MONTENEGRO, Benito Jerónimo. See FEIJOO Y MONTENEGRO, B. J.

Good

are

FEZ, Morocco, city, capital of the province of Fez, 95 miles from the Atlantic, 225 northeast of Morocco. Fez is a city whose ancient glories have departed. The walls which encircled it have gone to ruin, and its curiously contracted thoroughfares are ill-kept, dirty and sunless. In place of its reported population of 400,000 in its palmy days it has dwindled to a fourth of that number. It contains over 100 mosques, one of which, El Carubin, has a covered place for women who may choose to participate in public prayers, something unusual in Mohammedan places of worship. public baths are numerous. It is the entrepôt of northwest Africa for goods of European manufacture. Its chief manufactures leather and silk shawls and it was at one time the seat of a trade in red caps (fez), the dye for which was almost exclusively obtained here. Twice a year caravans go from Fez across the desert to Timbuktu. Fez has always been considered one of the chief seats of Moslem learning. Old Fez was founded in 793 by Edris II, a descendant of Mohammed, and continued the capital of an independent kingdom till 1548, when it was, together with its territory, conquered and annexed to Morocco. For upward of a thousand years Fez has been one of the sacred places of Islam. When the pilgrimages to Mecca were interrupted in the 10th century, the western Moslems journeyed to this city, as the eastern did to Mecca; and even now none but the Faithful can enter Fez without express permission from the emperor. Pop. (estimated) 100,000.

FEZ, fěz, Kingdom of, once independent, but now the most northern section of the empire of Morocco; bounded north by the Mediterranean; east by Algeria; south by the river Om-er-begh or Morbeza, which separates it from Morocco proper; and west by the Atlantic. It was conquered and united to Morocco in 1548. See MOROCCO.

FEZ, a red, brimless cap, usually of felt or wool, first made in the town of Fez, Morocco. It is the Turkish national headdress, but is also found in Greece, Egypt, the Balkan states and Persia.

FEZZAN, fez-zän', Africa, political division of the Italian province of Tripoli. The capital is Murzak; area about 156,200 square

miles. In the northern part are low mountains, or hills, one of which, Jebel-es-Sudah, or Black Mountain, is composed largely of basalt. Sandy plains and a few fertile valleys are in the southern part. There are no streams of water and but few natural springs; but good water may be obtained at a depth of from 10 to 12 feet. There are a few small lakes, usually covered with a thin crust of carbonate of soda. Rain seldom falls; in some places years intervene between the short periods of rainfall. Jackals, gazelles and foxes, the ostrich, vulture and falcon are found in the hills. The manufactures are coarse linen and cotton goods and some ornamental articles made from gold and silver. Trade with neighboring cities is carried on by means of caravans. As Phanazia, Fezzan was held by the Romans after 19 B.C. It was afterward independently ruled as a Christian state; was conquered by the Arabs and reverted to Mohammedanism; in the 16th century it fell under Turkish domination, and became a lieutenant-governorship in 1835. After the war between Italy and Turkey in 1911-12, it was, under the Treaty of Ouchy, placed with Tripoli, under the control of the former power. Pop. (estimated) 70,000, consisting of Tuaregs, Arabs, Moors, and Negroes.

FIACRE, fyä'kr', or FIACHRA, Saint, Irish monk of the 7th century. He was of noble family, became an anchorite and went to France. He was kindly received by Saint Faro, bishop of Meaux, to whom he indicated his desire to live as a hermit. The bishop assigned him a part of the forest of Brodolium (Breuil), in the province of Brie. There he built a monastery with a guest house, where he gave refreshment to wayfarers in that region. He acquired a reputation for miracles and his remains were long venerated at the monastery he had founded. In 1568 they were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, where his shrine is still to be seen. In the ecclesiastical calendar he is commemorated on 30 August. He is the patron of Brie and the protector of garden

ers.

French public cabs were first provided by the proprietor of the Hotel Saint Fiacre, Rue Saint Martin, Paris, in 1640. From this circumstance all public vehicles came to be called fiacres. Consult O'Hanlon, J., Lives of the Irish Saints' (Vol. VIII, 1875-1904).

FIALA, fe-ä'la, Anthony, American explorer: b. Jersey City Heights, N. J., 19 Sept. 1869. He was educated at Cooper Union and the National Academy of Design, New York. He began business life as stone artist and designer in lithography, was for five years assistant in a physical and chemical laboratory and in 1890 became a newspaper artist and cartoonist. He studied the processes of photo-engraving and photo-gravure, installed a photo-engraving plant for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle in 1894 and was in charge of the art and engraving department of that journal from 1894 to 1899. He served in Troop C, 1st New York Volunteer Cavalry during the Spanish-American War, acting meanwhile as war correspondent for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. He was photographer to the Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Expedition in 1901-02 and was commanding officer of the Ziegler Expedition of 1903-05, which penetrated to 82° 4' North. This expedition surveyed the Francis, Joseph Archipelago, but the

ship was lost. A relief party was sent out and Fiala was found at Cape Dillon in July 1905. He accompanied ex-President Roosevelt on his trip through the Brazilian wilderness in 191314, explored the Papagaio River and descended the Jurnena and Tapajos rivers of Brazil. He published Troop "C" in Service' (1899) and Fighting the Polar Ice' (1906).

FIAT, fi'at, an order of a judge or of an officer whose authority, to be signified by his signature, is necessary to authenticate particular acts; a short order or warrant of the judge, commanding that something shall be done. See 1 Tidd, Pr. 100, 108. Fiat in bankruptcy, in English law, was an order of the lord chancellor that a commission of bankruptcy should issue. Fiats in bankruptcy are abolished by 12 and 13 Vict. c. 116.

FIAT MONEY, money made legal tender solely by fiat or decree of the government. Such money is not based upon bullion, coin or an intrinsic value, and no provision is made for its conversion into specie. Such money was issued by the American colonies and the term was again applied to the irredeemable paper currency during the greenback controversy in the late sixties and early seventies.

FIBICH, fe'bik, Zdenko, Bohemian composer: b. Vseboric, 21 Dec. 1850; d. Prague, 10 Oct. 1900. He studied at Leipzig under Moscheles, Richter and Jadassohn in 1865-67, studied a year in Paris and also under Lachner at Mannheim. He settled as a teacher at Vilna in 1870 and six years later was appointed conductor at the National Theatre, Prague. In 1878 he became chorus master of the Orthodox Church at Prague but resigned three years later to devote himself to composition exclusively. He takes a foremost place among the composers of his race. He was very prolific, producing in all about 700 works, including the operas (Bukovín (1874); Blanik' (1881); 'Die Braut von Messina) (1884); the trilogy Hippodamia' (1891); Tempest' (1895); Sarka' (1898); Der Fall Arconas' (1900); the symphonic poems 'Othello'; Toman and the Nymph'; 'Vesna'; 'Vesna'; 'Zaboj'; 'Slavoj and Ludék; Vigilæ,' also several symphonies, choral works, pieces for piano, songs, etc. Consult Richter, C. L., 'Zdenko Fibich' (Prague 1899).

FIBIGER, fëʼbi-ger, Johannes Henrik Tauber, Danish poet and clergyman: b. Nykjöbing, 27 Jan. 1821; d. 1897. He wrote dramas founded on biblical history: 'Jephtha's Daughter (1849); 'Jeremiah (1850); John the Baptist (1857); also a few secular tragedies, the most notable among them being 'Cross and Love' (1858) and The Everlasting Struggle (1866), which has been very popular; and a narrative poem in 16 cantos, 'The Gray Friars (1882).

FIBONACCI, fe-bo-na’chẽ, Leonardo, called LEONARDO PISANO, Italian mathematician: b. Pisa about 1180; d. about 1228. Little is known of his life except from his writings, which were collected 1857-62 by Prince Boncompagni and include 'Liber Abaci (1202); Practical Geometria) (1220); Liber quadratorum (1225); Flos'; A Letter to Theodore. He traveled in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily and elsewhere, placing himself wherever

FIBRE. In the commercial sense the unmodified term "fibre" signifies the vegetable tissues used in the arts, and does not include the animal fibres, such as wool, hair and silk, which are classed as textile fibres, along with, however, several of the vegetable fibres, as cotton, linen, ramie, etc. Vegetable fibre is derived from the cellular structure or tissue of plants, the cells of which vary in diameter from one three-hundredth to one five-hundredth of an inch, the smaller sizes admitting of 125,000,000 cells to a cubic inch. The walls of these cells are composed of a substance of starchlike chemical composition, called cellulose, enclosing the living element of the plant, known as protoplasm. There are three forms of cells, simple cells, woody cells and ducts. Woody fibre is formed by the lengthening and thickening of simple cells. The ducts or vessels are large cylindrical cells whose walls have been absorbed and broken away. Wood cells consist of tubes one or two thousandths of an inch in diameter, their ends pointed and overlapping, so that when detached they form a continuous thread of cell structure of fibre proper, such as a filament of flax; and when they occur in the bark of dicotyledonous plants, or exogens, they are known as bast fibre. In monocotyledons, like the palms, and the century plant, the fibrous cells are built up with vessels into a composite structure known as "fibrovascular bundle." These bundles of elongated, thickened cells pressed firmly together, and often embedded in soft cellular tissue, constitute, so to speak, the bones or structural part of the plant, and are called structural fibres, sisal hemp being an example. Even the common or simple cells form a valuable fibre material when they are produced on the surfaces of the leaves, stems and seeds of plants, in the form of hairs. This form of fibrous substance is known as surface fibre, cotton being an example. In this instance the hairs envelop the seeds produced in the boll or capsule. The "down" on the stems and surfaces of the leaves of plants is another example.

The term fibre is also given to other forms of vegetable growth where the fibrous material is not employed in the form of detached filaments, like flax sisal and cotton. The stems and twigs, and even wood of exogenous trees, divided into splints and used for basket-making are designated as fibre; and in like manner the stems and leaves of endogenous plants split or used entire, as rattan, or when coarsely subdivided for plating into such articles as hats, mats, etc., are also classed commercially as fibre. The stripped epidermis of palm leaves, such as the raffia of commerce, is considered fibre, yet it is not in any sense filamentous. Even some species of mosses, marine weeds and fungous growths, on account of their economic employ