the country, have acquired forested tracts which they now manage for the protection of the community reservoirs or some other local purpose. There are over 130,000 acres of such forests in the United States, in tracts varying in extent from 40 to 25,000 acres.

Forestry by Private Owners.-The first example of professional forest management in the United States was begun in 1891 on the Biltmore Estate of Mr. G. W. Vanderbilt of Asheville, N. C., in a mixed forest of pine and hardwoods. To be sure, a large number of private owners had exercised care in handling their timberlands prior to this date. In some cases it was merely protection from fire; in other cases there was a rather crude selection of the trees to be cut, or grazing was restricted, or attempts were made to protect the young growth in logging. The Biltmore Estate, however, was the first to be managed in accordance with the principles of forestry. The work done on the estate was in the nature of an experiment to determine whether the introduction of forestry was practicable under the conditions obtaining in the lumber trade in the United States. The area under management was increased from the original 3,600 acres to 130,000 acres. Even in the first year, the forest work paid for itself and has been conducted successfully ever since. Most of this forest land has now been purchased by the government and is to become part of the national forest areas being established in the East. In general, the private owner of timberland has confined his efforts to fire protection, which is usually accomplished by means of associations such as have already been mentioned and by co-operation with the State and Federal governments. A number of private owners have practiced forest management profitably, however, since the Biltmore experiment. Conspicuous among these are wood pulp and paper manufacturers, who largely own the forests from which they get their logs. Because of the large investment in their mills and the impossibility of moving them to where there are new supplies of timber, these men are in many cases taking care of the young growth and limiting the cut to what the forests grow each year, thus insuring a permanent sustained yield. Of course, they also guard against fire, for that is the prerequisite to any successful forest management. practice of forestry by pulp and paper companies is largely localized in New England and the Adirondacks. On several tracts in New Hampshire, Michigan, and New York, and on the forest lands of the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn., forest management for the production of salable timber has proved successful. Abandoned farms in New England are often planted in timber and allowed to grow up from seed supplied by neighboring forests and are protected from fire and cut in short rotation for various uses. Several railroads are managing their forest properties for the production of a sustained yield of crossties. Many lumber companies are now employing technically trained foresters as a part of their woods force. This does not mean, of course, that they practice forestry; but it does indicate that the value to the lumberman of a technical knowledge and training is recognized. A large number of farmers and other small

The

woodlot owners are now taking an interest in the proper cutting, protection, and reproduction of their timber; and in some of the States a part of the duty of the State forester is to assist farmers in the management of their woodlots. In the eastern States and the central hardwood region the woodlots are especially important. In the southern pine region and in the Douglas fir region of the Pacific Northwest fire protection is receiving more and more attention. In both of these regions secondgrowth timber is now being cut. On the whole, the practice of forestry by private owners is increasing but has become nationally important only in one branch — fire protection.

Forestry as an Investment.- Returns from timber raising are realized perhaps once or twice in a lifetime, hardly more often at best. The amount of capital required is large. In the practice of private forestry certain carrying charges like taxes, interest, and protection costs must be met annually, while the return on the investment must be deferred. Therefore, only long-lived agencies, such as the State and corporations and large capitalists, are able to engage in it with any certainty of profit. Furthermore, where capital and interest are mixed together in an investment, as is the case with an investment in forestry, the pressure of competition or the necessity of meeting fixed charges leads very readily to forced exploitation of the timber-in other words, to the uneconomic anticipation of the harvest. element of time and the consequent temptation to private owners to turn from scientific management to mere exploitation makes it easier for the State than for even large capitalists to practice forestry. When the forests are owned by the public, the infrequent returns are of no disadvantage, while taxes and interest charges do not have to be met; and as a result of the assurance of stable ownership systems of management beneficial to the forest but requiring long periods of time may be undertaken with the certainty of success.

The

Technical Forestry. In order to utilize the present forest most economically and profitably and at the same time to provide for a new growth which will produce timber and other forest products in the future, the science of forestry concerns itself with both forest management and forest production. Forest production comprises silviculture, forest protection, and forest utilization; forest management, the mensuration and valuation of forests, working plans, and forest policy.

The practical aims of silviculture are to secure quick reproduction after the removal of timber, to reproduce valuable species rather than those which are less marketable, to secure a large yield, to produce timber trees of good quality, and to secure the most rapid growth compatible with good stands and good quality. More broadly, silviculture has to do with the improvement of forest stands and with their establishment by natural reproduction or by artificial seeding and planting. Various socalled silvicultural systems which are adapted for use under certain conditions, are made use of for the accomplishment of these aims. These are known as the selection system, clear cutting systems, the shelterwood system, and the coppice system. In practice these are combined

and modified in various ways. Forest protection is concerned with the protection of the forest against fires, animals, insects and fungi, and all other detrimental influences. In America protection against forest fires is the most important, although such pests as various kinds of beetles, white pine blister rust, chestnut blight, and mistletoe are common_and have to be fought and guarded against. Forest utilization deals with the best methods of utilizing all classes of forest products. This involves putting different classes of material to the use for which they are best fitted, determining the proper season for cutting and logging, and the methods of transportation from the forest to the mill and from the mill to market. Utilization takes into account not only the timber but all the by-products, such as pasturage, tanbark, extract wood, firewood, naval stores, etc. For the calculation of the material standing on a given area, the yield to be expected, and the value of single trees or whole stands, methods of forest mensuration are employed based on the determination of the dimensions, age, volume, the increment of trees and forests. These also serve as a basis for calculating the effect of different methods of treatment of the forest. Forest valuation aims to determine the value of the growing stock in the forest and the value of the forest soil. It is based, of course, on the knowledge derived from silviculture and mensuration; and is usually expressed as expectation value (the present value of all returns expected less the present value of all expenses which will be necessary to obtain those returns), cost value, or sale value. These expressions are applied to the forest soil, the growing stock, and the rental of a forest property. Forest management accomplishes the objects of forestry by means of forest working plans, which are based upon all other knowledge which has been gathered regarding the forest. The character of the working plan depends upon the object for which the forest is to be managed, so that the working plans for forests with different objects would be entirely different. The working plan takes special cognizance of the fact that for every tree or forest there may be three different kinds of increment; that is, volume, quality, and price increment. It usually includes a detailed description of the stand, the topography and climate, cost of logging, fire hazard and means of protection, the market for the product, the unit divisions of the forest, known technically as compartments, the length of the rotation, the objects of the silvicultural system, the treatment of the different species, and the general object of the forest management. Detailed description of the means to be used in handling the forest such

as maps, organization, etc., are also necessary.

American Practice. In the practice of forestry in America the general principles of management worked out in Europe through centuries of experience are being taken up as rapidly as economic and other conditions per

mit.

For many reasons, however, European practices cannot be adopted as they stand, but must be modified to suit American conditions. The use in America of forms of management different from those in vogue in Europe is made necessary by the highly developed and specialized methods and machinery of American

lumbering, the extremely moderate price and enormous supply of low-grade forest products, such as firewood and the cheaper kinds of lumber, the difficulties attendant on getting out much of the timber, transportation facilities which make most places in the country much less dependent on the local supply than is the case abroad, the vast number of small holdings of forest land, and the high taxes on forest property. The fundamentals of American practice are protection from fire, conservative lumbering, and care of the young growth. American practice has not aimed to secure a sustained annual yield; nor to adopt as they stand European systems of cutting; nor to maintain permanent forces of laborers or permanent logging-road systems. The American forester has to deal with different species, as well as different conditions, and in a large measure is compelled to work out his own methods. In the cutting of timber generally, the method hitherto practised by the lumberman, with such modifications as will insure the perpetuation of the forest, is still adhered to. This method is the selection of the large and the defective trees and the inferior species for cutting, the young growth of preferred species being preserved during the logging operation and sufficient large trees being left to restock the area or to furnish protection for the young growth as the case may be.

Summary.- Forestry has made great progress in America in the last 15 or 20 years. During that time it has been built up from almost nothing to a point where it is recognized as being of vital importance to the continued prosperity of the country. The technical equipment and training of the American forester have been brought to a very high standard; many of the essentials of American practice have been worked out; great advances have been made in the study of conditions peculiar to America; and intensive and specialized investigations have been made of the problems of forest management and wood utilization. The investigative work of American foresters now bids fair to rival in accomplishment the work which has been under way in Europe for several centuries. In the 25 years since the first forest land was dedicated by the government to the practice of forestry, a tremendous advance has been made in the forest policy of the nation. In the beginning, the creation of the national forests met with much opposition, due chiefly to the ideas of speculation prevalent in the great timber regions of the West and to the fear of special interests that public ownership of the forests would interfere with their plans. This opposition has not died away altogether, and at times manifests itself strongly, but it no longer has any considerable popular support and no longer appears in open attempts to do away with government ownership. It is now reduced to indirect attacks on details of the forest policy. A national forest policy has been firmly established, based upon government ownership and control of a sufficient amount of forest land of the United States to assure a continuous and perpetual supply of timber. See FOREST FIRES; FOREST LAWS; FOREST SCHOOLS; FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

Bibliography. Beveridge, Albert J., "The National Forest Service) (Speech in the Senate of the United States, Friday, 22 Feb. 1907,

Washington, 1907); Bruncken, Ernest, North American Forests and Forestry; their Relation to the Life of the American People' (New York 1908); Compton, Wilson, The Organization of the Lumber Industry, with special reference to the influence determining the prices of lumber in the United States' (Chicago 1916); Defebaugh, James Elliott, 'History of the Lumber Industry of America' (2 vols., Chicago 1906-07); Elliot, S. B., 'Important Timber Trees of the United States (Boston 1912); Fernow, Bernhard Eduard, Forestry in the United States Department of Agriculture during the period 1877-98) (Washington 1899, United States 55th Congress, 3d Sess., House Doc. No. 181); Economics of Forestry) (New York 1902), and 'A Brief History of Forestry in Europe, the United States and other Countries (Toronto 1911); Gifford, John Clayton, 'Practical Forestry for Beginners in Forestry' (New York 1902); Graves, Henry Solon, The National Forests and the Farmer' (United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1914, pp. 65-88); 'Forest Mensuration'; (New York 1906), and The Principles of Handling Woodlands' (New York 1911); Green, Samuel Bowdlear, 'Principles of American Forestry) (New York 1903); Hawley, R. C., and Hawes, A. F., 'Forestry in New England) (New York 1912); Kellogg, Royal Shaw, Lumber and Its Uses (Chicago 1914); National Conservation Commission, 'Report of the Commission' (Vols. I-III, pl., maps, diagrs., Washington Government Printing Office, 1909, 60th Cong., 2d Sess., Senate Doc. No. 676); Pinchot, Gifford, 'The Government's Forest Policy (Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. IV, pp. 152–154, New York 1909), and 'The Training of a Forester) (Philadelphia 1914); Recknagel, A. B., Theory and Practice of Working Plans) (New York 1913); Record, Samuel James, The Mechanical Properties of Wood, including a discussion of the factors affecting the mechanical properties, and methods of timber testing' (New York 1914); Roth, Filibert,_'First Book of Forestry) (Boston 1902), Forest Valuation' (Vol. II, 171 pp., 'Michigan Manual of Forestry Ann Arbor, Mich., 1916); Sargent, Charles Sprague, 'Manual of the Trees of North America' (Boston 1905); Schlick, William, Manual of Forestry) (Vol. I, Introduction to Forestry, Vol. II, Silviculture, Vol. III, Forest Management, Vol. IV, Forest Protection, Vol. V, Forest Utilization, London 1894-1911); Schwappach, Adam Friedrich, 'Forestry) (London 1904); Toumey, James W., Seeding and Planting) (a manual for the guidance of forestry students, foresters, nurserymen, forest owners and farmers (New York 1916); Van Hise, Charles Richard, The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States' (ib. 1910); Weiss, Howard Frederick, 'The Preservation of Structural Timber' (ib. 1915); White, Stewart Edward, "The Fight for the Forests (American Magazine, Vol. 65, New York, January 1908); The publications of the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

L. C. EVERARD, United States Forest Service. FORESTS, Petrified. Logs of trees petrified or replaced by silica and buried in sands and clays occur in various geological formations

in many parts of the world. Probably the most notable occurrence of this kind is the petrified forest in northeastern Arizona. This forest or series of forests lies 9 to 16 miles south of Adamana, a small station on the Santa Fé Railroad. They are so remarkable that in 1906 they were made a National Monument by President Roosevelt and placed in charge of a keeper under control of the Department of Agriculture. The trunks are all prostrate and mostly broken. They were of Araucarioxylon arizonicum, now extinct but related to the Norfolk Island pine, and existed in Triassic time. They grew near by and after falling drifted down a water course, lodged in some eddy, and were finally deeply buried by sand and clay. The conversion to stone was effected by gradual replacement of woody matter by silica deposited by underground water. A small amount of iron has given the beautiful brown, yellow and red tints for which this "wood" is noted. In thin slices under microscope the original cell structure of the wood is beautifully distinct. Some of the trunks are six feet in diameter and more than 100 feet in length, one forming a small natural bridge, the clay having been washed out beneath it. Some logs are in place where buried, but most of them roll down slopes as the sand and clay is washed away. Petrified wood occurs at other places in Arizona and New Mexico, and there are many trunks, some upright, in the eastern part of the Yellowstone Park. See PALEOBOTANY.

N. H. DARTON,

United States Geological Survey. FOREY, Elie Frédéric, ā-lē frā-dā-rik fō-ră, French military officer: b. Paris, France, 10 Jan. 1804; d. there, 20 June 1872. He took part in several Algerian campaigns as well as in the Crimean and Sardinian wars, and when the expedition to Mexico was decided upon in 1861, Forey received the command of the French troops. After several sanguinary engagements, he attacked and stormed the strong post of Puebla, thereby throwing open the road to the city of Mexico. For this service he was made marshal of France.

FORFAR, for'fer, Scotland, a municipal borough and capital of the county of Forfar, at the east end of Loch of Forfar, 13 miles northeast of Dundee. It contains a courthouse, county hall, town hall, the Meffan Institute, an infirmary and Reid hall. The principal industries are linen and jute manufactures, brewing, tanning, rope-making, and iron-founding. The parliaments of Scotland once met within the walls of the old castle of Forfar. It was made a burgh by David I in the 12th century, was burned down in the 13th, and thereafter dwindled to a country village. Witches were persecuted in Forfar, and there is shown in the county hall a witches' bridle, a gag used to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to the place of execution. Pop. 12,254.

FORFARSHIRE, or ANGUS, Scotland, an eastern maritime county, bounded north by Kincardine and Aberdeen, west by Perthshire, south by the Firth of Tay, and east by the North Sea. Its area is 873.7 square miles. The island of Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to Forfar. Its surface is irregular and hilly. The Sidlaw Hills and the Binchinnin