PURGATIVES

inferiority; fifth, if it contains any added poisonous or injurious ingredient which may render it harmful to health; sixth, if it consists in whole or in part of filthy, decomposed or putrid animal or vegetable substance or any part of an animal unfit for food, or if it is the product of a diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. (6) Drugs are regarded as misbranded if the packages or labels contain false or misleading statements regarding the contents or place of production, if they are imitations of or offered for sale under the name of another article, if the original contents of the packages have been changed since they were labelel, if the label does not indicate the quantity or proportion of alcohol, morphine, cocaine and other narcotics, and finally, by an amendment passed in 1912, if the label contains false statements regarding the curative or therapeutic effects of the contents. (7) Similar provisions cover the misbranding of food which must also, under an act of 1913, be marked with the measure, weight or numerical count save in the case of very small packages, and must not be labeled or branded in such a way as to deceive or mislead the purchaser.

The Meat Inspection Act.- This act was also passed 30 June 1906 and aims to provide special protection against the distribution in interstate commerce of unwholesome meat or meat products. Animals must be inspected by government officials before they are killed, the carcasses must be again inspected afterward, meats which are packed or canned must be further inspected and marked, and the establishments in which meat is killed, packed or in any way prepared must also pass close scrutiny. The government pays the cost of these inspections. To prevent corruption on the part of the inspectors they are frequently shifted from one part of the country to another on short notice. The administration of the law is in the hands of the Secretary of Agriculture who utilizes for that purpose the Bureau of Animal Industry. The beneficial results of these laws have been enormous. A large number of dishonest and injurious products have been driven from the markets forever to the great advantage of the pocketbook and health of the consumer. Manufacturers and producers have come to realize the commercial advantages of purity and cleanliness and have in numerous cases been glad to advertise the fact that they have gone far beyond the requirements of the law in those particulars. The commercial incentive to fraud and adulteration has thus been largely removed.

State Laws. Since the pure food and drug laws of the national government are limited in their scope to the products which are distributed through interstate commerce it is only natural that the separate states should have legislation upon the same subject. Several facts should be noted about these State enactments. First, they apply to production, sale or distribution of food and drugs within the State. Second, they are in many cases more comprehensive in scope and more rigorous in the standards set up than the Federal laws. Third, they must be so drawn as not to produce a conflict with the Federal laws in their application or administration. For example, a State, under the guise of passing a law for the protection of

the health of its citizens, may not forbid the importation and sale within its borders of food or drugs in their original packages which meet the tests of the Federal law in the matter of purity or labeling. Few conflicts of this kind, however, occurred and the legislation of the Federal government and the States upon this important subject have merely supplemented each other.

Bibliography.- Breed, Abbott and Morgan, 'Digest of National and State Food Laws' (1916); Freund, Police Power' (1906); Hemingway, 'Public Health' (1914); Parry, 'Food and Drugs (1911); Robertson, Meat and Food Inspection (1908); Thornton, 'On Pure Food and Drugs' (1912); United States Bureau of Animal Industry, Annual Reports; United States Bureau of Chemistry, Reports and Bulletins; Wiley, 'Foods and Their Adulteration' (1907). ROBERT EUGENE CUSHMAN, Associate in Political Science, University of Illinois.

PURGATIVES, cathartics; medicines_for evacuating the bowels. See CATHARTIC; CON

STIPATION.

PURGATORY, according to the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, a state or place in which the souls of those who depart this life in the grace of God suffer for a time, in expiation of their venial transgressions or in undergoing the penalty due to mortal sins, the guilt and eternal punishment of which have been remitted. Hence purgatory is not a place or state of probation: for the souls in purgatory the time of probation is past, and they are already assured of their everlasting bliss in heaven, though as yet they are not sufficiently pure and holy to be admitted to the vision of God. The dogmatic teaching of the Church goes only so far as to declare that, (1) there is a purgatorium (place of purification), and (2) that the souls therein are aided by the prayers of their brethren on earth. But though the definitive teaching of the Church stops here, the speculations of divines, the meditations of spiritual men and the beliefs of the general mass of the faithful go much further, and have developed an idea of purgatory which is very much more definite. Thomas Aquinas and Suarez, among the greatest lights of the theological schools, teach that instantly after passing out of the present life, the faithful souls are cleansed from the stains of all venial sin by their turning with perfect love to God; at the same time the debt of the temporal penalties of sin, whether mortal or venial, has still to be paid. Theologians formerly taught that the purgation was by material fire, but this view has been widely modified. While confessedly the doctrine of purgatory is not clearly and unequivocally deducible from any passage of the universally accepted books either of the Hebrew or the Christian Scriptures (for Maccabees is not received by all as canonical, and passages of the New Testament which Catholics believe to point decisively to this doctrine have no such signification for Protestants), it is admitted on all sides that in the very earliest church liturgies that are extant are found forms of prayer for the dead, and that the existence of an intermediate state after death is taught by the fathers both Eastern and Western with

practical unanimity, so far at least as to admit that the dead can be aided by the prayers of the living. Buddhists, Theosophists and many others teach of a region where discarnate souls are purified before they can go higher.

PURIFICATION, in the Jewish ceremonial law, a body cleansing with water accompanied by rites more or less elaborate according to the nature of the uncleanness from which the person was to be purified: this physical cleansing being regarded as emblematical of an inward spiritual purification. For different occasions of purification and different rites, see Leviticus xi, 25-40; xv, 1-15; xv, 18; Numbers xix. Similar rites of purification are common to pagan religions whether of ancient or modern times. In the ritual of the Roman Catholic Church, the rinsing of the chalice after communion and the ablution of the fingers of the celebrant after the same are called a purification.

PURIFICATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY, Feast of the, a festival observed in the Roman Catholic Church on 2 February; in the calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States, as well as in that of the Established Church of England, the Purification of the Virgin Mary is entered for the same day, and in the Book of Common Prayer there are collect and lessons for the day of the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, commonly called the Purification of Saint Mary the Virgin." The events commemorated by the Church on this day are those recorded in the gospel of Saint Luke, ii, 22-39, namely, the going of the Virgin to the temple 40 days after the birth of her son, for her ritual purification after childbirth, according to the prescriptions of Leviticus xii; the presentation of the babe to the Lord; and the prophecies of Simeon and Anna. The Christian festival of the Purification was solemnized by the Church at least as early as the end of the 6th century. It is customary on this day, in Catholic countries, for the people and clergy to form processions, each one carrying a lighted candle, signifying the light which the Redeemer brought into the world.

PURIFYING APPARATUS, is of use in many industries and economic processes, particularly in the water supply of communities where the available source does not vield a pure product. Aside from the various chemical treatments of such waters the electrolytic system has found favor in that it purifies without adding some other ingredient. It has been found that certain metals are capable of producing, while under the action of an electric current immersed in the liquid to be purified, an insoluble hydroxide of the chlorides and sulphates held in solution, these being set free by the action of current passing through the liquid (see ELECTROLYSIS); the oxygen evolved at the anode decomposing and oxidizing impurities of animal and vegetable origin, leaving the water clear, free from odor and disease-breeding germs, sparkling, with a pure water taste (see DISTILLATION). For municipal supply, means are provided for the generation of electricity by either hydraulic or artificial power, using large basins containing the electrodes in which the oxidation takes place; the water passing thence

into a coagulating section provided with means to retard the suspended matters; the water flowing thence down an inclined weir for the purpose of aeration, into another compartment of the basin containing screens, which clarifies it from all sediment, thence to storage reservoirs, occupying small space as compared to sand bed filters and automatic in operation. The apparatus for potable and industrial use consists of vessels capable of working under high pressure as for boiler feed purposes, one of which contains the electrodes or a series of them for very large supply; the electrodes being connected to a suitable source of electric supply, the vessels being provided with air-valves and insulators to prevent the grounding of the current, and connected to other vessels by suitable conduits to remove the suspended matters, thus permitting a constant flow of the water through the apparatus, requiring small space and installed at any convenient point. For apartmenthouses and hotels, and establishments for bottling carbonated waters small installations are quite efficient. They are arranged so that the motor may be run by the hydraulic pressure in the water main if desired. The current consumption is very low as the resistance of the water is utilized in the treatment.

In the gas industry the "purifier" consists of a number of sieve-like trays placed in tiers. These are filled with the purifying material and the gas is compelled to pass through them consecutively. In the first purifier the trays are filled with lime thiocarbonate and some sulphurets which remove the poisonous carbon dioxide, although increasing the content of sulphureted hydrogen. The second purifier contains slaked lime, and removes nearly all the carbon disulphide and part of the sulphureted hydrogen. The third purifier may be a duplication of the second, or, if the gas is not too foul, it may go at once to the last purifier, filled with iron oxide, which removes the last traces of the sulphides and sulphurets.

In the flour-milling industry the purifying apparatus is pneumatic. After the grain has been through the fourth pair of breaking rolls and is in the form known as semolina, ready to be ground into flour, it is passed through the purifier, a long silk-covered sieve of varying meshes, enclosed in an air-tight compartment, The sieve dips downward on a slight grade and is shaken by appropriate machinery. At the top of the purifier is an exhausting fan which sucks a draught of air up through the sieve and the "semolina" which is traveling down the grade upon the silk. The chaff and light fibrous material which has no food value is carried off into side channels by the draught, while the heavier food parts of the grain continue down the sieve until they come to a mesh which they can pass through, being thus sorted as to size for further treatment. The material removed by the draught amounts to from 10 to 15 per cent of the grain. This is again passed through a purifier of somewhat different weave, and a part of it is recovered and added to the semolina to be ground. The purifying chamber is provided with glass windows through which the process may be watched, and the arrangement of fan and air valves is such that the force of the draught may be adjusted with the greatest delicacy.

PURIM, poo'rim, the Festival of Lots, which was instituted by Mordecai (Esther ix, 27-x, 3), and is celebrated to this day by the Jews on the 14th and 15th of the month Adar (March), in commemoration of their wonderful deliverance from the destruction with which they were threatened by Haman. On these festive days the book of Esther is read, presents are interchanged, and gifts are sent to the poor. The great popularity of this festival in the days of Christ may be gathered from the following remark of Josephus: "Even now all the Jews that are in the habitable earth keep these days as festivals and send portions to one another." It is supposed that it was this feast which Jesus went up to celebrate at Jerusalem (John v, 1). It is universally celebrated by the large Hebrew population in the United States. See BEFANA.

PURITAN CITY, a name applied to Boston, Mass., referring both to the early settlers and the characteristics of its modern inhabitants.

PURITANISM. The Puritans were those who thought that the English Reformation had not gone far enough in its separation from the Roman Catholic Church, but that there were many ceremonies and forms still retained in the worship which were too suggestive of papacy, They held that it was not expedient or right to retain the use of the cross in baptism, the clerical vestments, the custom of kneeling at the altar and other forms which had been rejected by the Reformed Churches on the Continent. They believed that the worship should in this way be purified and that only those who lived upright lives should be the ministers of the Church. To them the Church was a means of advancing religious truth, and it could not do this to the best advantage while hampered, as they thought, by useless, misleading and unscriptural forms and ceremonies, especially when these forms and ceremonies were obligatory for all and the observance of them enforced by the civil authority. During the persecution of the Protestants in the reign of Mary, hundreds of the English reformers went to the Continent and were in the company of the leaders of the Reformed Church. When Elizabeth came to the throne, these men returned and became the leaders of English Protestantism. Some of them regarded the wearing of the vestments prescribed by the Church authorities as a matter of indifference, others refused to wear them. They did not object to the government of the Church of England or the close connection between Church and State or the doctrinal system, but objected to what they regarded as the remnants of popery.

Whether they would be allowed to do as they wished or not depended largely on the attitude of the queen. Elizabeth was a woman whose religious tastes were stronger than her religious convictions and the simplicity and bareness of the worship of the Reformed Church offended her. She disliked Puritanism because the teachings of men like John Knox opposed her idea of the royal power. She opposed any puritanical modification of the Prayer Book or of the ceremonies of the Church. That there was to be no room for nonconformity was shown when her first Parliament passed the Act of Uniformity.

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which made unlawful any form of Dublic worship but that of the Prayer Book, and the Act of Supremacy, by which the queen was acknowledged supreme governor of the realm in spiritual and ecclesiastical affairs. She resolved to retain in the worship as much show and form as possible, and ordered uniformity in vestments. If any refused they were forbidden to preach and deprived of their office. This law was not strictly enforced at first, but with greater rigor as the time went on. Large numbers were ejected from their churches, but continued to hold private meetings. Many were imprisoned and treated with severity. But nonconformity continued to grow notwithstanding the efforts to suppress it.

In early Puritanism the objection is mainly to the forms and ceremonies in the worship of the Church. In the later years of the reign of Elizabeth, attention is given to the government of the Church and the relation between Church and State. Elizabeth claimed that in this her will was supreme. Some of the Puritans, above all others, Thomas Cartwright, taught that the only right form of Church government was that laid down in the New Testament and that it was Presbyterianism. He taught that the civil authorities are not to interfere in Church affairs, but they are bound to protect it. There is still to be a state church but with a Presbyterian rather than an Episcopal form of government. This was directly opposed to the queen's supremacy, and her efforts to suppress this form of Puritanism were vigorous. These Puritan movements were within the Established Church, but there were some who believed that a church having any connection with the state was unscriptural and so there arose the party called Independents or Separatists. They taught that the local church was independent and should manage its own affairs. These were also called Brownists from Robert Browne, who was their first leader. The Separatists were severely persecuted and many left the country. Thus, at the close of the reign of Elizabeth, there are three kinds of Puritans: those who desire a purified worship and still remain in the Church, those who would have a state church under the Presbyterian form of government and those who believed that an established church wrong. Hopes were entertained that James VI, educated in Presbyterian Scotland, would be more favorable to Puritanism. The clergy petitioned him for freedom from the burden of human rites and ceremonies and the matter was considered at the Hampton Court Conference. But James' motto was "no bishop, no king," so they could look for little toleration. Uniformity was enforced with great vigor and many Puritans deprived of all hopes of redress left the country. This condition continued with even greater severity in the reign of his son, Charles I, and there seemed in the early part of his reign no check on his tyranny in Church and State. Despairing of freedom in Old England, Puritan and Separatist turned to America to create there a New England. In 1620 a little company of Separatists after a sojourn in Holland came America and settled at Plymouth. In the course of the next 20 years thousands of Puritans settled in Massachusetts. This Puritan

was

to