stantially the same as one of the most widespread folktales of the Aryan world. The king acquired an enormous treasure, and to secure it built a treasury of stone. The architect left one stone loose, so nicely adjusted as to be unnoticed, yet capable of being taken out and replaced without difficulty. Before death he entrusts the secret to his two sons, who from time to time plunder the king's treasure at their will, until at length the elder is caught in a snare set by the king. According to his desire, the younger brother cuts off and carries away his head, so that he may remain unknown. The king now orders the headless body to be exposed unburied, protected by a guard of soldiers, but the younger brother lades an ass with skins of wine, allows some of it to run out and is relieved in his distress by the soldiers, to whom in gratitude he gives his wines so freely that they all sink into a drunken sleep. Thereupon he shaves the right half of all their beards, and carries his brother's body to his mother. The king next sends his daughter to find out the clever thief. She promises her love to those who reveal to her the most extraordinary things that have ever happened to them, and when the young man in his turn relates the strange passages of his life she seizes him; but he cunningly slips his brother's dead hand into hers, and so escapes. The king is so much struck with wonder and admiration that he promises the clever thief his daughter in marriage, since he surpassed all mankind in knowledge; for, while the Egyptians surpassed all the world, he surpassed the Egyptians.

The wealth of Rameses III is said to have been equal to 400,000 talents, or $387,500,000, an incredible sum for those ages. It is represented on the walls of the palace treasury in the Medinet Habu as consisting of the precious metals and of wonderful jewels.

Herodotus gives the generally accepted story of the supposed thefts from the treasury, but his chronology and historical facts have been proven to be too inaccurate to be relied upon.

RHAPSODISTS, wandering minstrels among the ancient Greeks, who sang the poems of Homer and sometimes their own compositions. They were for a long time held in high esteem, until the poems were committed to writing, and through the medium of manuscript copies became pretty generally known, when the rhapsodists soon lost their importance. Each ballad or recitation was termed a rhapsody, and thence it was applied to the separate books of the Iliad' and 'Odyssey.' Consult Browne, H.. Homeric Study) (London 1905). RHATANY. See RATTANY.

RHAZES, rā'zēs (ABU BEKR MAHAMMED JEN ZAKHARIYA AR-RAZI), Arabic physician: b. Kai or Raz (ancient Rhagæ), near Teheran, probably 923 A.D. He acquired great philologcal and philosophical knowledge, but studied chiefly music. Eventually he became expert in the medical science of his day and was made director of the Bagdad Hospital. There is a story that, when aged, he became blind and refused to have an operation performed upon his eyes, because the surgeon about to undertake

could not tell how many membranes the eye Contained. When it was urged that the operaCon might nevertheless succeed, he still reased, saying that he had seen so much of the

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world he was weary of it. The best known of the books that pass under his name is 'AlHavi,' but its authenticity is questioned. His treatise on the smallpox and measles is the oldest account in existence of those two diseases. It has been translated several times into Greek and Latin and into English from the Arabic text by Greenhill (1847). His 'Ketab Al-Mansuri' is a complete system of medicine drawn from Arabic and Greek sources.

RHE, Île de, el de rā. See Ré, ÎLE DE

RHEA, re'a, an ancient Cretan earth-goddess, daughter of Uranus and Gæa, wife of her brother, the Titan Cronus, and by him mother of the Olympian deities Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Hestia, Demeter. She was early identified with the Asiatic nature-goddess, Cybele, the Great Mother, who was worshipped on mountains in Mysia, Lydia and Phrygia. Her Cretan Curetes corresponded to the Phrygian Corybantes, many of whom mutilated themselves like Attis in the frenzy of their orgies. Rhea was supposed at first to make her home in the towering hills of Asia Minor. It was her delight to tame the ferocious beasts found in these wildernesses, as well as to protect the fair towns lying in their valleys. Thus she became known as Mater Turrita and was represented as wearing a crown, turreted like a wall. Rhea's supposed love for the Phrygian shepherd, Attis, gave much color to her worship. In Pessinus, in Phrygia, there was a cave under Mount Dindymon, where was a large stone supposed to be the heaven-sent image of the goddess, as well as the tomb of Attis. This was the centre of her worship and here the first temple to Rhea is said to have been erected by King Midas. From this centre the worship spread to the neighboring towns and provinces, finally reaching Athens. The worship of Rhea continued long after the decadence of Phrygian civilization. Its introduction into Rome, during the Second Punic War, was the result of a prophecy of the Sibylline Fates which told that her image brought to Rome would expel a common foe. The stone in the cave at Pessinus was, therefore, placed in the temple of Victory in the capital city, a holiday being proclaimed to celebrate the event.

RHEA, the generic and usual book-name of the South American ostriches or nandus, which, although true ratite birds and occupying the place of ostriches in the American avifauna, yet differ so greatly from the African species that ornithologists universally rank them as a distinct family (Rheida) or even order (Rhea). Conforming to the general type of the ostriches, the rheas differ in having three toes with large claws, the head and neck fully feathered, the flowing plumes absent from the wings and especially the tail, the ischiatic instead of the pubic bones forming the pelvic symphysis and the palatal structure peculiar in several respects. Three species of Rhea have been described; R. americana, found throughout the greater part of South America; R. macrorhyncha, which is confined to northeast Brazil and is distinguished by its darker color and longer bill; and R. darwini, of southern Argentina, which is smaller and has tarsi covered with small scales instead of scutes as have the others. The newly-hatched young of the latter are said to have the legs feathered to the toes.

Rheas are known to the natives as nandus or emas (the latter a corruption of emu introduced by the Portuguese) and live in small parties on the pampas and dry plains, where they associate with wild horses, deer and guanacos. In general habits they closely resemble the ostriches (q.v.), but usually run with the wings lowered instead of elevated. They are said to be able to swim across wide rivers. Because of the well-developed syrinx, which is absent in the ostriches, the male rheas have a loud, resonant call, especially heard during the mating season, when they also fight viciously. They are polygamous and the male incubates the score or more of eggs deposited by several females in one nest. They are omnivorous. Although lacking the precious plumes of the ostrich the feathers of the rhea have a commercial value in the manufacture of feather dusters. Many thousands are killed by shooting or with the bolos, or are run down with hounds or horses and clubbed to death. In many places they are threatened with extinction; but, although they breed readily in confinement, no efforts to raise rheas on a commercial scale appear to have been made. Consult Darwin, Voyage of the Beagle (New York 1889); Mosenthal and Harting, Ostriches and Ostrich Farming' (London 1877).

RHEA, or CHINA GRASS. See RAMIE.

RHEA LETTER, The, in American history, a famous political episode of the time of the Monroe administration. On 6 Jan. 1818, Andrew Jackson, then army department commander in the Southwest, wrote to President Monroe regarding the Seminole troubles in Florida and advising the prompt seizure of East Florida, which he declared could be done "without implicating the government." He offered to accomplish the seizure himself within 60 days, if it should be indicated to him that it were desirable. John Rhea, a congressman from Tennessee, was the secret channel through which he hoped Monroe's assent might be signified. It was not. In 1831, during Jackson's administration, in the height of his quarrel with Calhoun, which turned in part upon the Seminole affair, Rhea wrote to Monroe, hoping to elicit from him something that would implicate him as approving Jackson's plan. Monroe, on his death-bed in New York, denounced Rhea's insinuations as utterly false.

RHEES, rés, (Benjamin) Rush, American Baptist clergyman and educator: b. Chicago, Ill., 8 Feb. 1860. He was graduated from Amherst College in 1883 and from the Hartford Theological Seminary in 1889. He was pastor of the Middle Street Baptist Church, Portsmouth, N. H., 1889-92, and professor of biblical New Testament interpretation (1892-1900) in the Newton Theological Institution, Newton Centre, Mass. He was elected president of the University of Rochester, Rochester, in July 1900, where he is also Burbank professor of Biblical literature. He has published (The Life of Jesus of Nazareth: a Study (1900); 'Saint Paul's Experience as a Factor in His Theology (1896), also articles in journals and periodicals.

RHEIMS, rēmz, Fr. răns (Reims), France, in the department of Marne, on the Vesle, 100 miles northeast of Paris. Its industries are

considerable, embracing, besides champagne, the manufacture of textiles, dyeworks, breweries, distilleries, etc. It is also an important market for raw wool, and its woolen goods, mixed fabrics in silk and wool, merinos, etc., are known in commerce as articles de Reims. The old ramparts have been transformed into boulevards, but a few ancient gateways remain, the most noteworthy of which is the Porte de Paris. Rheims was a well-built town and picturesque from the material employed in building and from the prevalence of the older style of architecture. The abbey of Saint Remy was one of the town's principal features; it had become a hospital before the late war. Rheims is a very ancient city. It occupies the site of Durocortorum, mentioned by Julius Cæsar as capital of the Remi, from which people it subsequently took its present name. There are extensive Gallo-Roman remains on the Montagne de Rheims to the south. Christianity may have found entrance into Rheims at an earlier period, but not till the middle of the 4th century did Rheims become a bishop's see. It became a place of importance under Frank rule and was early imbued with a religious charhis officers in 496 and to the many solemn and acter as the scene of the baptism of Clovis and historical rites celebrated in its great cathedral. It became an archbishopric in the 8th century and after 1179, the year of the coronation there of Philip Augustus, it became the place for the coronation of the kings of France, Charles X being the last monarch solemnly crowned there. The only sovereigns, in the long series, not crowned at Rheims were Henry IV, Napoleon I and Louis XVIII. During the frenzy of the Revolution, the cathedral was attacked by the populace, and the sacred oil ampoule was destroyed, in detestation of royalty; and in 1830 the ceremony of the coronation at Rheims was abolished. The most remarkable building is the great cathedral, one of the noblest specimens of Gothic art in all the world. It was built in the first half of the 13th century; is 466 feet long by 99 feet in breadth. with a transept of 160 feet, and a height of 144 feet. Its grandest features were the wes façade, which was unrivaled, and the Ange: tower, which rose 59 feet above the lofty roof The baptismal fonts were exquisite and organ was one of the finest in France. A wealth of tapestry, sculpture and painting beautified this magnificent structure and in numerable statues of artistic grace adorned th exterior. It is now necessary to write of it glory in the past tense for the Germans b aerial attack and long range artillery fire dam aged this glorious edifice beyond repair duing the four years in which they were in sigh of its towers yet never able after the fir fierce onslaught to come within the city. T cathedral is now nothing but a magnific ruin. The city of Rheims was also laid in rur by shot and shell. In normal times Rhein had a population of 118,000. See WAR I EUROPE; and consult Gossett, Alphonse i cathédrale de Reims' (Paris 1895); Justir.. J., Reims, la ville des sacres' (Paris 1860 Marlot, Guillaume, 'Histoire de la ville, cité. université de Reims' (3 vols., Rheims 18 45); Reims and its Cathedral' (in Conteporary Review, Vol. CVI, New York 1914).

the

though not in name. The Reformation is regarded by Protestants as a great awakening of the Christian consciousness and the wellspring of all the efforts that have since been made for the renovation of the spiritual life in the Protestant churches. In England, at the beginning of the 17th century the religion of the Established Church had degenerated into a cold but decent formalism, but a revival of spiritual interest in the common people was brought about through the instrumentality of the Puritans. After the restoration of the monarchy and of the State church there was a period of spiritual sloth and apathy, infidelity and immorality till in the 18th century Great Britain was aroused by the fervid preaching of the Wesleys, Whitefield, Rowland Hill, Romaine, Venn, Newton, Cecil, Fletcher and others, earnest men who were raised up and qualified by the divine spirit for the work which lay before them. (See METHODIST CHURCHES OF THE WORLD). In the colony of Massachusetts Jonathan Edwards carried on notable revivals at Northampton in 1734. Shortly afterward Gilbert Tennant aroused great religious interest in New Jersey. The impulse spread through the colonies, and has been called the Great Awakening; it seems to have arisen independently of the movement in the parent country; but it was greatly quickened by the missionary labors of John Wesley and George Whitefield during their visits to the colonies. Its influence was very powerful during the years 1740, 1741 and 1742, and its quickening results were felt long afterward, and inspired the multiplication of churches, seminaries and colleges. About the same time there was a remarkable revival of religion in various parts of Scotland, especially at Cambuslang and Kilsyth; and out of a similar awakening in Wales arose the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church. In 1839 Kilsyth was again the focus of a great revival of religion, which extended to Dundee, Perth, Blairgowrie, Ancrum, Jedburgh, Kelso, and in the north of Scotland to Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. In the first half of the 19th century there were many revivals in the United States, notable among which were those under Charles G. Finney (q.v.), who also visited Great Britain and preached to vast crowds in London and other cities; a notable feature of the great revival commenced in 1830 was the camp meetings (q.v.), assemblies of great numbers of people, held in the open air and addressed by relays of evangelists from morning till night. In 1858 there was a great revival of religion in the United States, which subsequently extended to the British isles and even to the continent of Europe. Its principal centres at first were New York and Philadelphia, whence it spread throughout the States, producing for a time a sort of federation of the evangelical churches for the promotion of the work of spiritual conversion. In nearly every city in the land meetings for prayer were held daily, often in business hours, in churches, in counting houses, in theatres and other places of public resort; in the one State of New York more than 2,000 cities, towns or villages had an active part in this revival; throughout the country the interest in the movement was universal; daily reports of the deep religious feeling of the people

were received at the principal centres and published in the newspapers. In New York every evangelical church received large accessions to its membership, and a like report was made concerning Boston, Baltimore, Washington, Chicago, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh and other cities. For nearly two years the meetings for prayer and the labors of the evangelists continued almost unflagging, and for many years noonhour prayer-meetings continued to be held in the business centres of many of the cities. In the summer of 1859 the movement extended to the north of Ireland, where it was not less fruitful of spiritual good than in America; the people flocked to the services in the open-air meetings or assembled in social gatherings for devotional exercises; there was a noticeable diminution of vice and immorality, especially of drunkenness; and judges and magistrates cordially recognized the reality and power of the spiritual work. From Ireland the revival spread to Scotland, and in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, and the other considerable towns, the religious denominations joined in active exertions to bring the neglected poor within the range of evangelistic and educational agencies. It extended to Wales also, where in one year the increase in the membership of the Calvinistic Methodist body alone was 33,724 souls; the gain to the independent denomination was 30,000, to the Established Church 20,000 and to the Wesleyan body 10,000. In more recent times the great revival in Wales of 1904-06 was conspicuous for its great wave of moral regeneration in certain districts. In the West and Southern United States and rural districts of the East the revival often took the form of the camp meeting (q.v.), and these open air gatherings continue to be made an instrument of evangelism and conversion by the Methodist Church. Out of the camp meeting sprang the Chautauqua Assembly (q.v.), an institution both religious and educational Especially notable was the revival initiated in Chicago by Dwight Lyman Moody (q.v.) and conducted by him in conjunction with Ira D. Sankey. These two evangelists—a preacher and a singer of the gospel-visited Great Britain in 1873, and for two years in the principal cities of England, Scotland and Ireland their meetings were attended by multitudes from all ranks of society, and their labors zealously seconded by ministers of all the evangelical churches; thousands of persons professed conversion, and there was a manifest religious awakening. The two evangelists on their return home engaged in revival work of the same kind in the American cities; and they subsequently made two visits to Great Britain, namely, 1883-84 and 1891-92. The Salvation Army (q.v.) and the Volunteers of America (q.v.) are agencies designed to promote a continuous revival of religion, especially among the poor and neglected classes.

Among modern American revivalists and professional evangelists are "Gypsy" Smith, J. Wilbur Chapman, "Sam" Jones, R. A. Torrey, and most prominent of all "Billy" Sunday, an ex-baseball player who, though lacking in the elegancies of speech, possesses an energy of statement, a seemingly boundless enthusiasm and an ability for drawing and holding an audience that is phenomenal. He is the most

conspicuously successful revivalist since Moody,

Bibliography.- Bacon, L., History Christianity (New York 1897); Beardsley, G. F., History of American Revivals' (New York 1904); Burns, J., 'Revivals: Their Laws and Leaders (New York 1910); Davenport, F. M., Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals' (New York 1905); Duncan, 'History of Revivals of Religion in the British Isles' (New York 1840); Edwards, J., Narrative of the Work of God in Northampton' (1756); Ellis, W., 'Billy Sunday, the Man and His Message) (1914); Finney, C. G., 'Lectures on Revivals of Religion (Boston 1835; new ed., London 1910); James, W., Varieties of Religious Experience (New York 1902); Porter, 'Letters on Religious Revivals' (1850); Starbuck, Psychology of Religion' (1900); Stead, W. T., The Revival in the West (London 1905); Torrey, R. A., 'How to Conduct and Promote a Successful Revival' (New York 1906); Tracy, J., The Great Awakening: A History of the Revivals of Religion in the British Isles (London 1840); Tyler, B., 'New England Revivals) (Boston 1846).

REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES. See EDICT OF NANTES.

REVOLUTION, a term commonly used to designate a fundamental change in government, or in the political constitution of a country, effected or sought to be effected by violence and force of arms of a considerable number of individuals, and mainly brought about by internal causes; a revolt against the constituted authority more or less successfully and completely accomplished. In the United States the term Revolution is applied specifically to the American War for Independence, which began in 1775 with the irregular running fight popularly known as the battle of Lexington, and practically ended with the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Va., to the combined forces of the French and Americans, 19 Oct. 1781. By this war the colonies succeeded in casting off the English authority and in erecting the government of the United States. The English revolution was that revolution in England by which James II was driven from the throne in 1688. The Central American states and Mexico have been seriously afflicted for years with revolutions. See MEXICO; CENTRAL AMERICA; also POLAND; REBELLION; UNITED STATES AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

The French Revolution began in 1789. (See FRANCE). Others were: Sweden, 1772; Holland, 1795; Netherlands, 1830; Spain, 1868 and 1874; Brazil, 1889; Chile, 1891; Cuba, 1891-98; Norway, 1905; Turkey, 1908; Mexico, 1910; China, 1912.

has

REVOLUTION. (1) In astronomy, the motion of a planet around the sun or of a satellite around a planet. The point to which it returns is called annual, anomalistic, nodical, sidereal or tropical, according as it a relation to the year, the anomaly, the nodes, the stars or the tropics. (2) In geometry, when one line moves about a straight line, called the axis, in such a manner that every point of the moving line generates a circumference of a circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis, that motion is called revolution, and the surface is called the surface of

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revolution. Every plane through the axis is called a meridian plane, and the section which this plane cuts from the surface is called a meridian curve. Every surface of revolution can be generated by revolving one of its meridian curves about the axis. The revolution of an ellipse round its axis generates an ellipsoid; the revolution of a semi-circle round the diameter generates a sphere; such solids are called solids of revolution. (3) In mechanics, the motion of a rotating body around a centre, as that of a small gear-wheel traveling around a large gearwheel-distinguished from rotation.

TRIBUNAL.

Α

REVOLUTIONARY court of extraordinary criminal jurisdiction established by the French Convention, 10 March 1793, for the purpose of trying those accused of plotting "against the liberty, equality, unity and indivisibility of the Republic, the internal and external safety of the state, or the sovereignty of the people." It received the name Revolutionary Tribunal in October 1793. The court was to consist of a jury and a public prosecutor with two assistants, all named by the Convention, and from its decision there was no 80 toward the end of the tribunal's existence. appeal. The number of judges rose as high as Intended as a means of combating treason at home, the Revolutionary Tribunal speedily became an instrument in the hands of the Committee of Public Safety, whose will it executed under the guise of judicial form. Without any definite procedure, with no legal defenders allowed to the accused and with its acceptance of the vaguest rumors and charges as evidence, the tribunal offered but a mockery of justice and citation before it almost invariably meant death. The reading of the act of accusations, the trial and the execution of the sentence generally occurred on the same day. The tribunal sent 1,220 victims to the guillotine from its inception till June 1794, when Robespierre (q.v.) caused the infamous law to be enacted accelerating its procedure; from that date to the fall of Robespierre, a period of about 50 days, it condemned 1,376 persons, Robespierre and his followers being among the lot. The tribunal soon after ceased its functions and was formally suppressed 31 May 1795. Its sanguinary work must be regarded as justified to a large extent by its success in saving the country from sedition at home at a time of great national danger. It was but one feature of the organized Terror which saved France from foreign conquest. Consult Wallon, 'Histoire du Tribunal Révolutionnaire de Paris) (1880-82).

REVOLUTIONARY WAR. See UNITED STATES AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

REWA, ra'wä, India, (1) the capital of a native state of the same name, 131 miles south