monument was a quarter of a century building and cost about 25,000,000 francs. From the Piazza di Venezia the broad Via Nazionale runs a general course northeast between the Quirinal and the Viminal Hills to the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, a minute's walk from the railway station (Stazione di Termini), opposite the Baths of Diocletian. In the reverse direction this great street is continued under the names of the Via del Plebiscito and the Corso Vittorio Emanuele-westward to the Tiber opposite the Villa Barberini. In a fairly accurate way it is the boundary between the area of ancient Rome and that of the modern city on the left bank of the river. Important streets south of this line are the Via Cavour and the Via Alessandrina, which pass the site of the Forum of Vespasian; the Via S. Teodoro (the Vicus Tuscus), traversing the ancient Velabrum; the Via dei Cerchi between the Palatine and Aventine, running through the site of the Circus Maximus, and the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, touching the tomb of the Scipios and the arch of Drusus, and ending at the ancient gate to the Appian Way. Other_important squares and streets: the Piazza Barberini adjacent to the Palace; the Piazza Colonna in the centre of the city, with a column of Marcus Aurelius, and nearby the Piazza di Monti Citoria, on which stand the Chamber of Deputies and other government offices; the Piazza San Pietro with its artistic colonnade, in front of Saint Peter's, and the Vatican; the Piazza di Navona with a fountain and two churches; the Piazza del Campidoglio in front of the Capitol, having the perfect equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, celebrated as winning Michelangelo's special regard; the Piazza di S. Agnese, a martyred saint; the Piazza di Navonna, containing the famous statue, a noble Greek work of Pasquino (hence the term "Pasquinades") where for a long time satires of the day, directed against the Pope or nobility and prevalent follies, were posted; the Piazza di Montanari, where from time immemorial peasants contracted with landowners for the season's farm-work; and in the new quarter, embracing the Esquiline, Viminale and a portion of the Pincian Hill, besides the Independenza, are the Piazza di Dante, Vittorio Emanuele, Esquilino, Guglielmo Pepe, etc.

Before the railroad was built most travelers entered Rome by the Porta del Popolo, at the northern extremity of the city and but a short distance from the piazza of that name. Those bound for Tuscany depart thence along the Via Flaminia. Just outside is the Villa Borghese, officially styled Villa Umberto Primo since its purchase and transfer to the city as a public park.

The Porta Pinciana is less than a mile east of this gate, and the Porta Pia is a half mile still further on, along the Corso d'Italia. The Via Venti Settembre begins at the Porta Pia, near which the Italian troops entered Rome Sept. 20, 1870, and runs to the heart of the city near the Quirinal. From this gate the Via Nomentana leads across the Anio to Mons Sacer, where the plebeians took refuge during the secession movement which ended in the recognition of popular rights. A mile south is Porta San Lorenzo, the ancient Tiburtina, from which excursions leave Rome for Tivoli.

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Along a lane inside the wall, going south across the railroad, one reaches the Porta Maggiore, which was originally an archway in the Acqua Claudia (A.D. 52), which brought_water from Subiaco, 42 miles from Rome. Palestrina is reached from the gate over the ancient Praenestina. The Porta S. Giovanni is the gate of departure from Naples, and the Porta S. Sebastiano, the southernmost gate of the city, is the porte of departure for the tombs and other places of interest along the historic Appian Way.

Government. The government of Rome is administered by a communal council, a municipal council and a syndic. The municipal council is a modified board of public works and the syndic is the administrative chief; both are elected by the communal council from the membership of that body. The syndic is a member of the government. The executive power of the state belongs exclusively to the sovereign and is applied by ministers, of whom there are 13, one without portfolio: The Interior, Foreign Affairs, the Colonies, Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, the Treasury, Finance, War, Marine, Public Instruction, Public Works, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and Posts and Telegraphs. The legislative authority is the joint concern of king and Parliament. Parliament consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, the former composed of the princes of the royal house, who are over 21 (they may not vote until they are 25 years of age), and of an unlimited number of members over 40 who are nominated for life by the king. The total membership usually exceeds 400. The House of Deputies has a larger membership, now somewhat more than 500. The number is determined by the population-one deputy to every thousand. The Parliament sits in the Camera de' Deputati, in the Piazza Colonna. The Quirinal Palace is the residence of the royal family and the chief government bureaus are on the Quirinal Hill or near by.

Religion, Churches, etc.- The Roman Catholic Church is in name the ruling religion, but church and clergy are subordinate to the civil government, which guarantees freedom of worship. The law of 1873 abolished the legal status of religious corporations, and they cannot hold property. The revenue from lands destined for charity or schools is now administered by the city, and by each commune; the income from monastic parish church property in Rome belongs to the parish churches, and that from property of foreign religious orders in Rome

about $80,000-goes to the Holy See. Saint Peter's and its precincts, the Vatican Palace and Saint John Lateran belong to the jurisdiction of the popes. More than 95 per cent of the population of Italy is Catholic. Rome is a city of churches. Any good guide book records more than a hundred as worthy of a visit. Among those of most ancient foundation still in use are Santa Pudenziana, traditionally the oldest, dating from Saint Peter's establishment of a place of worship in the house of Pudens; S. Maria, in Transtevere, founded in the beginning of the 3d century; San Paolo, Fuore le Mura, on the spot where Saint Paul suffered martydrom, S. Agnese, and S. Lorenzo Fuore, all credited to Constantine. Saint Peter's, of course, ranks first among Roman churches. It

was founded by Constantine on the site of the Circus of Caligula, where Saint Peter suffered martyrdom, and is gorgeously decorated with gold mosaics and marble. Bramante, Raphael, and Michelangelo were the chief architects. Bernini filled it with the sculptures of his contemporaries and many monuments line the pillars and fill niches. The Pietà is one of the notable sculptures of Saint Peter's. The great dome is a marvel of architectural skill. The façade is 357 feet long and 144 feet high, and over the central entrance is the loggia, where the Pope is crowned and whence he gives his Easter benediction. Over the main entrance of the vestibule is the celebrated Mosaic of the Novicella (1298), by Giotto and Cavallini. The magnificent central door of bronze is a remnant of the old Basilica (1431-39). The enormous size of statues and ornaments in Saint Peter's are deceptive as relates to the vast proportions of its interior, which is only realized by observing the moving, living figures of people. Around the shrine under the dome, 86 gold lamps burn continually. Wonderful mosaic pictures are among the countless gems which enrich this noble temple. Its interior has the form of a Latin cross with chapels on the sides. Many princes of the church lie buried in the crypt. The Vatican, the present residence of the popes, is a vast collection of palaces, comprising the old and new palaces of the popes, the Sistine Chapel, the Loggie and Stanze, the picture gallery, museums and library. Raphael's wall frescoes rank above all his other work, and in the School of Athens' and 'Disputa,' the Transfiguration, Driving Heliodorus_from the Temple, and other frescoes of the Stanze and Loggie, he evinces astonishing theological wisdom and philosophical erudition. stanza attests to his deep reflection and rich imagination; detail and general effect are equally studied, resulting in a perfect harmonious whole. In the Sistine Chapel, the Last Judgment is Michelangelo's chef d'œuvre.

Each

S. Giovanni in Laterano, on a lonely site near the south wall, was built by Constantine, but has since been rebuilt, altered and extended by Giotto and others under various popes, and the high church councils are held there. Other churches are S. Maria Maggiore, in whose construction antique bronzes, gold and marble from pagan temples were largely used, also beautiful mosaics of the 6th century. S. Croce, erected by Saint Helena, the nave of which was borne by eight antique columns; Saint Clemente, the most perfect specimen of old basilica, contains frescoes by Masaccio; Il Gesu, the principal church of the Jesuits, with the façade and cupola by Giacomo della Porta, and whose interior is rich in marbles; S. Maria degli Angeli, originally a part of Diocletian's Baths, transformed into a church by Michelangelo, an imposing church, contains an altar-piece by Muziano, and a fine fresco by Domenichino, and the tomb of Salvator Rosa; S. Maria in Ara Cœli, remarkable for its architecture and very old; S. Maria in Cosmedin at the north base of the Aventine, remarkable for its Alexandrine pavement and its lofty and beautiful campanile of the 8th century; S. Maria sopra Minerva, notable as the only Gothic church in Rome; S. Maria in Dominica or della Navicella on the Caelian, with 18 fine columns of granite and two of porphyry, and whose frieze of the

nave was painted in Camiean by Giulio Romano and Perino del Vago; S. Maria della Pace, interesting for its paintings, particularly the four sybils, considered among the most perfect works of Raphael, and S. Maria del Popolo, notable for its sculptures and paintings (Jonah' by Raphael, ceiling frescoes by Pinturicchio, and mosaics from Raphael's cartoons by Aloisio della Pace). In S. Pietro in Vincoli is the celebrated 'Moses of Michelangelo, by some critics regarded his best work of sculpture.

The Catacombs are subterranean passages, extending many miles by winding passages underground, used as sepultures and meeting places by the early Christians; niches in the walls of tufa were used to bury their dead. The passages are narrow, except occasionally when they open into wider spaces used for chapels of worship, and often frescoed. The decoration is characteristic and significant, usually representing Christian hope and doctrine. Pictures are frequently symbolic. A large collection of sarcophagi, pictures and inscriptions from the catacombs, are preserved in the Lateran Museum. The catacombs extend around the city in a wide circle; the most important are the Catacombs of Calixtus on the Via Appia; those of Domitilla or Saints Nereus and Achilleus; Saint Prætextatus, Via Appia; Saint Priscilla, beyond the Porta Salara; Saint Agnese, Via Nomentana; Saint Sebastiano, beneath the church of that name; Saint Alessandro; and the Jewish Catacombs and those of Mithras of the Via Appia. Among the finest sepulchral monuments, the chief were the Mausoleum of Augustus in Campus Martius, and that of Hadrian on the west bank of the Tiber, now the fortress of modern Rome, known as the Castle of San Angelo.

Schools, Libraries, etc.-The state controls public instruction. There are four grades: Elementary; secondary, classical; secondary, technical and higher education. Elementary instruction is provided with religious tuition, if the parent request it; otherwise, without. Great Britain, America, Germany and Austria maintain schools of history, art and archæology. France's Academy of Art is in the Villa Medici. The University of Rome or Collegio della Sapienza is an ancient institution; canon law and civil law, medicine and philosophy and philology are included in its curriculum. It possesses extensive laboratories, botanical gardens and an astronomical observatory. It is attended by nearly 1,000 students. The Collegio de Propaganda Fide is situated in the Piazza di Spagna; the Collegio Romano, adjacent to Saint Ignazio, is a lyceum, and now contains the Archæological Museum and the recently established library, Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele. The Accademia de' San Luca, for the promotion of the fine arts, is composed of painters, sculptors and architects, and was founded in 1595. Connected with it are a picture gallery and schools of fine arts. There are numerous other institutions connected with art, music, science or learning, one of which the Accademia de' Lincei, founded in 1603 by Galileo and his contemporaries, is the earliest scientific society of Italy. The American College, founded about half a century ago, is a school for priests and is composed of students who desire a post-graduate course in divinity, philosophy, rhetoric, metaphysics, etc. The students

communities slowly emerging from the chaos of the centuries following the fall of Rome, toward a highly organized, structurally elaborate type of church edifice and of monastic buildings. The church plan, at first simply basilican (see BASILICA), became increasingly varied and complex to meet the growth and changes of liturgy and ritual. The transept and crossing became more important; a lantern, tower or dome was often erected over the crossing; the eastern arm of the church was lengthened and chapels for the worship of various saints opened out from the transepts and apse. Bell-towers were added, detached in Italy, attached in France, England and Germany. Structurally two great changes from the early basilican types were evolved; (a) masonry piers, square, round or clustered, took the place of columns between nave and aisles; and (b) vaulting gradually replaced the wooden ceilings, first in the side-aisles, later in the high central aisle or nave. In Italy the supply of antique marble columns led to a longer continuance of the use of columns, the tradition lasting even after Roman shafts were no longer to be had, and many Lombard, Tuscan and Sicilian churches have columnar interiors. Elsewhere piers of stone had to be used from the first. The use of vaulting was primarily the result of scarcity of timber and of the destruction by fire of many of the wooden-roofed churches. These two changes compelled a far more massive construction than that of the non-vaulted wooden-roofed, columnar basilicas. The masonry was at first crude and heavy, especially in France and England. Walls were thick; round arches were universally used and built of stepped section with splayed or stepped jambs and jamb-shafts, especially in the doorways. Carving was at first scanty and rude, but advanced steadily in richness and refinement and in the 12th century sculpture was rapidly developed, especially in France. Vaulting became more scientific; groined vaults everywhere displaced the heavy barrel-vault over the nave as well as the side-aisles and in the 12th century the use of vault-ribs became general in their construction. The problems of support and abutment created by these changes compelled new experiments in the construction of walls, piers and buttresses, in which the masonry was more and more concentrated at the points of chief strain. (See BUTTRESS; VAULT). In all this structural development wholly new forms of architecture were created, both in the masses and details. In addition the monasteries developed the cloister with its arcaded court and various types of chapels, refectories and other dependencies. In general the exteriors of buildings were severely plain, except the richly carved portals; the interiors of churches were increasingly spacious and lofty as the style developed. Domical baptisteries and round chapels were frequent in the earlier centuries, especially in Italy and the Rhine Valley.

The Subordinate Styles.-The Lombard churches adhered in many cases to the basilican plan with wooden roof-ceiling; but vaulting was also early used, as in San Ambrogio, Milan, and the vaulted churches varied greatly in plan. The round window, the splayed and shafted portal with a porch and the arcaded cornice are

characteristic. The Tuscan employed banding and paneling in white and black marble externally and in and around Pisa richly arcaded façades were common. The great domical baptisteries of Florence and Pisa also belong to this style. The French Romanesque churches were frequently vaulted, sometimes with barrel-vaults (Autun, Clermont-Ferrand, Issoire); more often with groined vaults as at Caen. The exteriors became increasingly varied and structurally expressive, with twin towers at the west end and figure sculpture attained high merit (Saint Trophime and Saint Gilles at Arles; Chartres). In parts of central France (Périgueux, Angoulême) domical vaulting betrays Byzantine influence via Cyprus and Venice. The Anglo-Norman churches, often of vast size (e.g., Saint Alban's, over 500 feet long) were almost always roofed with wood over the high central nave, with vaulted side-aisles. Square central lantern-towers, round nave-piers and the carved zigzag are frequent. The Rhenish abbey churches are noted for their picturesque masses and many towers: they often have an apse at each end (Worms, Mayence, etc.). In the 12th century many wooden-roofed churches in France, England and Germany received vaulting.

Bibliography. Consult any of the general histories of architecture (Choisy, Fergusson, Fletcher, Hamlin, Kimball, Edgell, Simpson, Sturgis-Frothingham). Also Hasak, 'Die romanische und die gotische Baukunst' (Stuttgart 1899); Jackson, T. G., Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (London 1912). For the Anglo-Norman: Bond, F., 'Introduction to English Church Architecture' (London 1913); Scott, G., 'English Church Architecture (London 1882). For the French Styles: Baum, 'Romanesque Architecture in France (London 1912); Enlart, Manuel d'archéologie française (Paris 1902); Révoil, H., Architecture romane du Midi de la France' (Paris 1867); Viollet-le-Duc, E., 'Dictionnaire raisonneé, etc., S. v. Architecture monastique. For the Lombard: De Dartein, 'Etude sur l'architecture lombarde) (Paris 1822); Porter, A. K., 'Lombard Architecture' (New Haven 1916); Mediæval Vaulting' (New Haven 1910). For Germany: Hasak (as above); Otte, V., 'Geschichte der romanischen Baukunst in Deutschland' (Leipzig 1874); Kutschmann, T., 'Romanesque Architecture and Ornament in Germany (New York 1906). For Spain: Lamperez y Roma, "Historia de la arguitectura cristiana Española etc.' (Madrid 1909).

A. D. F. HAMLIN, Professor of the History of Architecture, Columbia University.

ROMANINO, Girolamo, je-rō-läʼmō rōmä-ne'-nō, Italian painter: b. Brescia, about 1485; d. there, 1565. He was a pupil of Feramola in Brescia and between 1509 and 1513 lived at Padua and Venice, where he studied the rich golden coloring of Giorgione and learned the art of reproducing it in his own works. After completing (1519-20) four frescoes in the cathedral at Cremona, he returned to Brescia. All his pictures are remarkable for their skilful composition and splendid coloring. but in his later works his tones become silvery, clear and cold and lose the warm lustre of Giorgione's sunset tints. He painted many

altar-pieces, of which the most remarkable are 'Madonna and Child' and 'The Madonna with the Dead Christ' (in Berlin Museum); Adoration of the Infant Christ' (in the London National Gallery, a good example of this painter's manner); Nativity (in the Church of San Giuseppe at Brescia); and an 'Assumption' (in the Church of Sant' Alessandro, Bergamo). He also painted some frescoes in the castle of Malpaga near Brescia, the home of the famous Colleoni, the commander of the Venetian armies. There are some fine portraits by Romanino to be seen at Brescia.

ROMANOFF, rō-mä'nof, the name of the late reigning family in Russia, founded by Michael Feodorovich Romanoff: b. 1598; d. 1645. He was descended through his grandmother from the family of Ruric, the founder of the Russian empire and came to the throne in 1613 by election of the boyars and the higher clergy. The early part of his reign was troubled by the Poles and by turbulent nobles. Western civilization gained an entrance into the country and many foreigners, particularly Scotchmen, became naturalized. France tried to disturb the commercial monopoly of England in Russia. Michael was succeeded by his son Alexis and the male succession of the Romanoff family continued until the death of Peter II in 1730, when the crown devolved upon Anne, Duchess of Courland and continued in the succession of the female Romanoffs until the death of Elizabeth in 1762. The latter was succeeded by her nephew, the son of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who ascended the throne as Peter III and established the dynasty of Romanoff-Oldenburg, which ended with the deposition of Tsar Nicholas II (q.v.) in March 1917. Consult Bain, R. N., The First Romanovs (New York 1905) and Edwards, H. S., The Romanoffs: Tsars of Moscow and Emperors of Russia' (London 1890).

ROMANS, Epistle to the. Authorship.That the Apostle Paul wrote the Epistle to the Romans is practically undisputed, for the very few critics who have ever denied it (scarcely more than the little "Dutch School" of the latter part of the last century) have found no recognition for either their arguments or their conclusions. The claim of Pauline authorship in the opening address (i, 1) is confirmed not only by unanimous tradition but also by the whole tone and contents of the letter, so that sane historical criticism unanimously asserts it with the utmost positiveness.

Destination. It is as little to be doubted that the letter was addressed to the Christians in the city of Rome. The name of the city stands both in the opening address and a little later in the same chapter (i, 7, 15), and this is confirmed alike by unanimous tradition and by many things in the letter itself, as, for example, that Paul writes in i, 10-13 and xv, 23, 24, 28, in a fashion which would fit with no other city we can name, especially as we know from Acts xix, 21, that he did have the fixed purpose of visiting that city. While the omission of the name Rome in a few authorities, none of which is of any special value, raises a somewhat perplexing problem for textual criticism, the result is such as in no way to shake the confidence of scholars in the Roman address of the Epistle.

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The Roman Church.-The origin of the Christian Church at Rome cannot now be traced. It is probable that many influences and elements combined to make it. Some Jews from Rome were in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost (Acts ii, 10) and they may in some cases have returned to Rome, carrying their newfound faith; when persecution scattered the Jerusalem Christians (Acts viii, 1), some may have wandered as far as Rome; as the facilities for communication throughout the empire were better than they were again anywhere in the world till during the last century, and as the capital of the empire was a great magnet which drew from all over the world, men and women who had elsewhere been converted to Christianity may have drifted to Rome in considerable numbers during the quarter of a century which intervened between the resurrection of Jesus and the writings of Romans. Thus even though the traditions of an Apostolic origin for that Church cannot be credited, it is easy to see that from the very nature of the case there must have been many Christians in the city when Paul wrote. Many would naturally be of Jewish descent, so that there is nothing improbable in the interpretation which many give to the words of Suetonius narrating the expulsion of the Jews by Claudius, to the effect that the disturbances were not due to the general Messianic hope, but to conflicts based on a difference of opinion as to whether Jesus was the expected Messiah. It is also known that there were many proselytes and others, who were associated with the Jews, being attracted by the lofty spiritual worship of their monotheistic faith and the strict purity of its moral precepts. It has been held by some that the church at Rome was mainly made up of Jewish Christians at that time but the prevalent opinion seems to be fully justified, especially by what we find in the letter itself as well as by the probabilities of the case, that the dominant element in the church was Gentile, as was doubtless already true almost everywhere outside of Palestine.

Date and Place.- From the epistle itself (xv, 25) we learn that it was written just before Paul's visit to Jerusalem to carry up the great collection which he had gathered from all the churches which he had founded. From Acts xx, 3, we learn that Paul spent in Corinth the three months before setting out on this journey, and everything fits with the view that this Epistle was written during the period of comparative leisure and calm which this visit may well have afforded him. There are also greetings at the close of the letter (xvi, 23), which are best understood as from Corinthian Christians, and Cenchreæ, from which place Phoebe, the bearer of the letter, was to set out, was close by Corinth. While most of Paul's letters can be dated with satisfactory certainty so far as the relations to other events in his life work are concerned, there still remains much uncertainty as to the calendar years to which these events should be assigned. The date usually given to the stay in Corinth and the writing of Romans is the winter of 57-58, but some chronologists date the events accompanying its composition several years earlier.

Integrity. There has been much discussion as to whether we now have the Epistle to the Romans in the form in which it was sent