Salsamentum sardicum. At present preference is given to tunny preserved in oil. Many of the fishes, especially the smaller ones, are consumed fresh. The tunny occurs also in the Pacific and is much sought for by anglers on the coast of southern California, where tuna-fishing has become a fashionable sport; but several other species seem to take its place in the Indo-Pacific ocean. It is one of the largest fishes, attaining to a length of ten ft. and to a weight of more than a thousand pounds.

In connexion with the extremely active life of these fishes allusion should be made to the fact, first ascertained in 1839 by John (brother of Sir Humphry) Davy, that the temperature of the blood of a tunny may be considerably higher than that of the surrounding water, a discovery which disposed of the timehonoured division of vertebrate animals into warm-blooded and cold-blooded..

The variations and movements of the tunny and albacores were studied with special care by King Carlos of Portugal, who published in 1899 a large illustrated memoir entitled A Pesca do atum no Algarve in 1898 (Lisbon). This memoir is accompanied by excellent figures of the different species of Thunnus and charts of their distribution in the Atlantic.

TUNSTALL (or TONSTALL), CUTHBERT (1474-1559), English prelate, was an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle, Lancashire, his legitimate half-brother, Brian Tunstall, being killed at Flodden in 1513. Cuthbert seems to have studied at Oxford, at Cambridge and at Padua, and he became a distinguished scholar, winning favourable comment from Erasmus. Having held several livings in quick succession, he became chancellor to William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1511, and he was soon employed on diplomatic business by Henry VIII. and Wolsey, being sent to Brussels in 1515 and to Cologne in 1519, while he was at Worms during the famous Diet of 1521. In 1516 he had been made master of the rolls; in 1521 he became dean of Salisbury, in 1522 bishop of London, and in 1523 keeper of the privy seal. For Henry VIII. he negotiated with Charles V. after his victory at Pavia in 1525 and he helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in 1529. In 1530 he succeeded Wolsey as bishop of Durham. Tunstall's religious views now gave some anxiety. He adhered firmly to the traditional teaching of the Church, but after some slight hesitation he accepted Henry as its head and publicly defended this position. In 1537 the bishop was appointed president of the new council of the north, but although he was often engaged in treating with the Scots he found time to take part in other public business and to attend parliament, where in 1539 he participated in the discussion on the bill of six articles. Although he disliked the religious policy pursued by the advisers of Edward VI. and voted against the first act of uniformity in 1549, he continued to discharge his public duties without molestation until after the fall of the protector Somerset; then in May 1551, he was placed in custody. A biil charging him with treason was introduced, but the House of Commons refused to pass it; he was, however, deprived of his bishopric in October 1552. On the accession of Mary in 1553 he was released and was again bishop of Durham, but during this reign he showed no animus against the Protestants. When Elizabeth came to the throne he refused to take the oath of supremacy, and he would not help to consecrate Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury. He was arrested, and was still a prisoner at Lambeth when he died on the 18th of November

1559

were the scene of a terrible explosion în 1866, by which nearly a hundred lives were lost. There are brick and tile works in Tunstall. The town is included in the large parish of Wolstanton, and in the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) under the "Potteries Federation" scheme (1908)..

TUPIS (Comrades), a tribe and stock of South American Indians of Brazil. They call all other peoples Tapuyas (foreigners). Their original home is believed to have been on the Amazon, and from its mouth they spread far southwards along the Brazilian coast. When hard pressed by the Portuguese they retreated to the Andes. Martius gives the Tupi nation a wide range, from the Atlantic to the Andes, and from Paraguay to the Amazon. Of this stock are the Omaguas, Cocomas and other Peruvian tribes. Latham makes the Tupis members of the Guarani stock. The "Lingoa Geral" or trade language between Portuguese and Amazon Indians is a corruption of the Tupi tongue.

TUPPER, SIR CHARLES, BART. (1821- ), British colonial statesman, son of the Rev. Charles Tupper, D.D., was born at Amherst, Nova Scotia, on the 2nd of July 1821, and was educated at Horton Academy. He afterwards studied for the medical profession at Edinburgh University, where he received the diplomas of M.D. and L.R.C.S. In 1855 he was returned to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Cumberland county. In 1862 he was appointed, by act of parliament, governor of Dalhousie College, Halifax; and from 1867 till 1870 he was president of the Canadian Medical Association. Mr Tupper was a member of the executive council and provincial secretary of Nova Scotia from 1857 to 1860, and from 1863 to 1867. He became prime minister of Nova Scotia in 1864, and held that office until the Union Act came into force on the 1st of July 1867, when his government retired. He was a delegate to Great Britain on public business from the Nova Scotia government in 1858 and 1865, and from the Dominion government in March 1868. Mr Tupper was leader of the delegation from Nova Scotia to the Union conference at Charlottetown in 1864, and to that of Quebec during the same year; and to the final colonial conference in London, which assembled to complete the terms of union, in 1866-1867. On that occasion he received a patent of rank and precedence from Queen Victoria as an executive councillor of Nova Scotia. He was sworn a member of the privy council of Canada, June 1870, and was president of that body from that date until the 1st of July 1872, when he was appointed minister This office he held until February 1873, of inland revenue. when he became minister of customs under Sir John Macdonald, resigning with the ministry at the close of 1873. On Sir John's return to power in 1878, Mr Tupper became minister of public works, and in the following year minister of railways and canals. At this time he was made K.C.M.G. Mr Tupper was the author of the Public Schools Act of Nova Scotia, and had been largely instrumental in moulding the Dominion Confederation Bill and other important measures. Sir Charles represented the county of Cumberland, Nova Scotia, for thirty-two years in successionfirst in the Nova Scotia Assembly, and subsequently in the Dominion parliament until 1884, when he resigned his seat on being appointed high commissioner for Canada in London. Shortly before the Canadian Federal elections of February 1887, Sir Charles re-entered the Conservative cabinet as finance minister. By his efforts the Canadian Pacific railway was enabled to float a loan of $30,000,000, on the strength of which the line was finished several years before the expiration of the contract time. He resigned the office of finance minister in May 1888, when he was reappointed high commissioner for the Dominion of Canada in London. Sir Charles was designated one of the British plenipotentiaries to the Fisheries Convention at Washington in 1887, the result of which conference was the signing of a treaty in February 1888 (rejected by the U.S. Senate) for the settlement of the matters in dispute between Canada and the United States in connexion with the Atlantic fisheries. He was created a baronet in September 1888. When the Dominion cabinet, under Sir Mackenzie Bowell, was reconstituted in January 1896 Sir Charles Tupper accepted office, and in the following April he

TUPPER, MARtin farquhar (1810-1889), English writer, the author of Proverbial Philosophy, was born in London on the 17th of July 1810. He was the son of Martin Tupper, a doctor, who came of an old Huguenot family. He was educated at Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained a prize for a theological essay, Gladstone being second to him. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but never practised. He began a long career of authorship in 1832 with Sacra Poesis, and in 1838 he published Geraldine, and other Poems, and for fifty years was fertile in producing both verse and prose; but his name is indissolubly connected with his long series of didactic moralisings in blank verse, the Proverbial Philosophy (1838-1867), which for about twenty-five years enjoyed an extraordinary popularity that has ever since been the cause of persistent satire. The first part was, however, a comparative failure, and N. P. Willis, the American author, took it to be a forgotten work of the 17th century. The commonplace character of Tupper's reflections is indubitable, and his blank verse is only prose cut up into suitable lengths; but the Proverbial Philosophy was full of a perfectly genuine moral and religious feeling, and contained many apt and striking expressions. By these qualities it appealed to a large and uncritical section of the public. A genial, warm-hearted man, Tupper's humane instincts prompted him to espouse many reforming movements; he was an early supporter of the Volunteer movement, and did much to promote good relations with America. He was also a mechanical inventor in a small way. In 1886 he published My Life as an Author; and on the 29th of November 1889 he died at Albury, Surrey. TURBAN, the name of a particular form of head-dress worn by men of Mahommedan races. The earlier forms of the word in English are turbant, turband, and tolibant or tulipant, the latter showing that variant of the original which survives in the name of the flower, the tulip. All these forms represent the French adaptation of the Turkish tulbend, a vulgarism for dulbend, from Persian dulband, a sash or scarf wound round the head. The Moslem turban is essentially a scarf of silk, fine linen, cotton or other material folded round the head, sometimes, as in Egypt, round the tarbush or close-fitting felt cap; sometimes, as in Afghanistan, round a conical cap; or, as among certain races in India, round the skull-cap or kullah. Races, professions, degrees of rank, and the like vary in the style of turban worn; distinctions being made in size, methods of folding, and colour and the like (see INDIA: Costume). At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, a species of headdress somewhat resembling the true turban in outward form was worn by ladies of western nations, chiefly for use indoors. TURBERVILLE (or TURBERVILE), GEORGE (1540?-1610?), English poet, second son of Nicholas Turberville of Whitchurch, Dorset, belonged to an old Dorsetshire family, the D'Urbervilles of Mr Thomas Hardy's novel, Tess. He became a scholar of Winchester College in 1554, and in 1561 was made a fellow of New College, Oxford. In 1562 he began to study law in London, and gained a reputation, according to Anthony à Wood, as a poet and man of affairs. He accompanied Thomas Randolph in a special mission to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible in 1568. Of his Poems describing the Places and Manners of the Country and People of Russia (1568) mentioned by Wood, only three metrical letters describing his adventures survive, and these were reprinted in Hakluyt's Voyages (1589). His Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonets appeared "newly corrected with additions" in 1567. In the same year he published translations

His Epitaphs &c. were reprinted in Alexander Chalmers's English Poets (1810), and by J. P. Collier in 1867.

in Persia, bounded N. by Meshed, E. by Bakharz, S. by Khaf TURBET I HAIDARI, a district of the province of Khorasan and W. by Turshiz. It has a population of about 30,000, composed chiefly of members of the Turki Karai tribe and Beluchis. The Karais were settled here by Timur in the 14th century and now provide a battalion of infantry and 150 cavalrymen to the most of them situated in its more fertile castern part, and pays The district contains about 150 villages and hamlets, army. now very little, but there are large crops of grain. a yearly revenue of £14,000. Much silk was formerly produced,

S. of Meshed, in 35° 17′ N., 59° 11' E., at an elevation of 4100 ft. TURBET I HAIDARI, the capital of the district, is 76 m. nearly The town is picturesquely situated on the bank of a deep and wide ravine in the midst of lofty hills, and surrounded by clusters of villages. Its population amounts to 8000 souls. There is a well-stocked bazaar and a number of Russian traders have established themselves here since 1903, when the place was connected with Meshed on one side and with Seistan on the other side by a telegraph line which, nominally Persian, is worked and maintained by a Russian staff. A British consul has resided here since 1905, and there is also a post office.

present name from the turbet or tomb of a holy man named The place was formerly known as Zavah and derives its Kutb ed din Haidar, the founder of the ascetic sect of dervishes known as the Haidaris. He died c. 1230 and is buried in a large domed building a short distance outside the town.

TURBINE (Lat. turbo, a whirlwind, a whirling motion or

object, a top), in engineering, a machine which applies the energy of a jet of water or steam to produce the rotation of a shaft. It consists essentially of a wheel or chamber provided with a number of blades or vanes upon which the fluid jet impinges; the impelled fluid causes the blades to rotate and also the shaft to which they are attached. Water turbines are treated under HYDRAULICS, and steam turbines under STEAM ENGINE.

TURBOT1 (Rhombus maximus or Psella maxima), one of the largest and most valuable of the flat-fishes or Pleuronectidae. The turbot, which rarely exceeds a length of two feet, has great width of body, and is scaleless, but is covered with conical bony tubercles. The eyes are on the left side of the body, the lower being slightly in advance of the upper; the mouth is large and all round the coasts of Europe (except in the extreme north), prearmed with teeth of uniformly minute size. The turbot is found ferring a flat sandy bottom with from 10 to 50 fathoms of water.

The broad banks off the Dutch coast are a favourite resort. It is a voracious fish, and feeds on other fish, crustaceans and molluscs. during the summer, and going into deeper water in the cold It seems to constantly change its abode, wandering northward season. The eggs of the turbot, like those of the majority of flat-fishes, are pelagic and buoyant. They are small and very numerous, varying from five to ten millions in fish of 18 to 21 lb weight. The young fish are symmetrical and swim

The word "turbot" is of great antiquity, perhaps of Celtic origin; it is preserved in French in the same form as in English, and is composed of two words, of which the second is identical with in halibut and with the German " Butte," which signifies flat-fish. The German name for the turbot is "Steinbutte."

the

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The peace of Westphalia (1648) was no peace for France, which was soon involved in the civil war of the Fronde (see FRANCE: History). Few of Turenne's actions have been more sharply criticized than his adhesion to the party of revolt. The army of Weimar refused to follow its leader and he had to flee into the Spanish Netherlands, where he remained until the treaty of Rueil put an end to the first war of the Fronde. The second war began with the arrest of Condé and others (January 1650), amongst whom Turenne was to have been included; but he escaped in time and with the duchesse de Longueville held Stenay for the cause of the "Princes "" Condé, his brother Conti, and his brother-in-law the duc de Longueville. Love for the duchess seems to have ruled Turenne's action, both in the first war, and, now, in seeking Spanish aid for the princes. In this war Turenne sustained one of his few reverses at Rethel (December 15, 1650); but the second conflict ended in the early months of the following year with the collapse of the court party and the release of the princes.

Turenne became reconciled and returned to Paris in May, but the trouble soon revived and before long Condé again raised the standard of revolt in the south of France. In this, the third war of the Fronde, Turenne and Condé were opposed to each other, the marshal commanding the royal armies, the prince that of the Frondeurs and their Spanish allies. Turenne displayed the personal bravery of a young soldier at Jargeau (March 28, 1652), the skill and wariness of a veteran general at Gien (April 7), and he practically crushed the civil war in the battle of the Faubourg St Denis (July 2) and the reoccupation of Paris (October 21). Condé and the Spaniards, however, still remained to be dealt with, and the long drawn out campaigns of the "Spanish Fronde" gave ample scope for the display of scientific generalship on the part of both the famous captains. In 1653 the advantage was with Turenne, who captured Rethel, St Menehould and Muzon, while Conde's sole prize was Rocroy. The short campaign of 1654 was again to the advantage of the French; on the 25th of July the Spanish were defcated at Arras. In 1655 more ground was gained, but in 1656 Turenne was defeated at Valenciennes in the same way as he had beaten Condé at Arras. The war was eventually concluded in 1657 by Turenne's victory at the Dunes near Dunkirk, in which a corps of English veterans sent by Cromwell played a notable part (June 3-14); a victory which, followed by another successful campaign in 1658, led to the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659.

On the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661 Louis XIV. took the reins of government into his own hands and one of his first acts was to appoint Turenne " marshal-general of the camps and armies of the king." He had offered to revive the office of constable of France (suppressed in 1627) in Turenne's favour if the marshal would become a Roman Catholic. Turenne declined. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a Protestant, he had refused to marry one of Richelieu's nieces in 1639 and subsequently rejected a similar proposal of Mazarin.

de la Force, to whom he was deeply attached. But he sincerely deplored the division of the Christian church into two hostile camps. He had always distrusted the influence of many dissident and uncontrolled sects; the history of Independency in the English army and people made a deep impression on his mind, and the same fear of indiscipline which drove the English Presbyterians into royalism drew Turenne more and more towards the Roman Catholic Church. How closely both he and his wife studied such evidence as was available is shown by their correspondence, and, in the end, two years after her death, he was prevailed upon by the eloquence of Bossuet and the persuasions of his nephew, the abbé de Bouillon, to give in his adhesion to the Orthodox faith (October 1668). In 1667 he had returned to the more congenial air of the Camps and Armies of the King," directing, nominally under Louis XIV., the famous "Promenade militaire" in which the French overran the Spanish Netherlands. Soon afterwards Condé, now reconciled with the king, rivalled Turenne's success by the rapid conquest of Franche Comté, which brought to an end the War of Devolution in February 1668.

In Louis XIV.'s Dutch War of 1672 (see DUTCH WARS) Turenne was with the army commanded by the king which overran Holland up to the gates of Amsterdam. The terms offered by Louis to the prince of Orange were such as to arouse a more bitter resistance. The dikes were opened and the country round Amsterdam flooded. This heroic measure completely checked Turenne, whom the king had left in command. Europe was aroused to action by the news of this event, and the war spread to Germany. Turenne fought a successful war of manœuvre on the middle Rhine while Condé covered Alsace. In January 1673 Turenne assumed the offensive, penetrated far into Germany, and forced the Great Elector of Brandenburg to make peace; later in the year, however, he was completely outmanœuvred by the famous imperial general Montecucculi, who evaded his opponent, joined the Dutch and took the important place of Bonn. In June 1674, however, Turenne won the battle of Sinzheim, which made him master of the Palatinate. Under orders from Paris the French wasted the country far and wide, and this devastation has usually been considered the gravest blot on Turenne's fame, though it is difficult to say that it was more unjustifiable than other similar incidents in medieval and even in modern war. In the autumn the allies again advanced, and though Turenne was again outmanœuvred, his failure on this occasion was due to the action of the neutral city of Strassburg in permitting the enemy to cross the Rhine by the bridge at that place. The battle of Enzheim followed; this was a tactical victory, but hardly affected the situation, and, at the beginning of December, the allies were still in Alsace. The old marshal now made the most daring campaign of his career. A swift and secret march in mid-winter from one end of the Vosges to the other took the allies by surprise. Sharply following up his first successes, Turenne drove the enemy to Turkheim, and there inflicted upon them a heavy defeat (January 5, 1675). In a few weeks he had completely recovered Alsace. In the summer campaign he was once more opposed to Montecucculi, and after the highest display of "strategic chess-moves " by both commanders, Turenne finally compelled his opponent to offer battle at a disadvantage at Sassbach. Here, on the 27th of July 1675, he was killed by almost the first shot fired. The news of his death was received with universal sorrow. Turenne's most eloquent countrymen wrote his éloges, and Montecucculi himself exclaimed: "Il est mort aujourd'hui un homme qui faisait honneur à l'homme." His body was taken to St Denis and buried with the kings of France. Even the extreme revolutionists of 1793 respected it, and, when the bones of the sovereigns were thrown to the winds, the remains of Turenne were preserved at the Jardin des Plantes until the 22nd of September 1800, when they were removed by order of Napoleon to the church of the Invalides at Paris, where they still rest.