The

From 1807 to 1809, when Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi, was made grand duchess, Tuscany was ruled by a French administrator-general; the French codes were introduced, and Tuscany became a French department. French ideas had gained some adherents among the Tuscans, but to the majority the new institutions, although they produced much progress, were distasteful as subversive of cherished traditions. After Napoleon's defeats in 1814 Murat seceded from the emperor and occupied Tuscany, which he afterwards handed over to Austria, and in September Ferdinand III. returned, warmly welcomed by nearly everybody, for French rule had proved oppressive, especially on account of the heavy taxes and the drain of conscription. At the Congress of Vienna he was formally reinstated with certain additions of territory and the reversion of Lucca. On Napoleon's escape from Elba Murat turned against the Austrians, and Ferdinand had again to leave Florence temporarily; but he returned after Waterloo, and reigned until his death in 1824. The restoration in Tuscany was unaccompanied by the excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and much of the French legislation was retained. Ferdinand was succeeded by his Restoration, son, Leopold II., who continued his father's policy of benevolent but somewhat enervating despotism, which produced marked effects on the Tuscan character. In 1847 Lucca was incorporated in the grand duchy. When the political excitement consequent on the election of Pius IX. spread to Tuscany, Leopold made one concession after another, and in February 1848 granted the constitution. A Tuscan contingent took part in the Piedmontese campaign against Austria, but the increase of revolutionary agitation in Tuscany, culminating in the proclamation of the republic (Feb. 9, 1849), led to Leopold's departure for Gaeta to confer with the pope and the king of Naples. Disorder continuing and a large part of the population being still loyal to him, he was invited to return, and he did so, but accepted the protection of an Austrian army, by which act he forfeited his popularity (July 1849). In 1852 he formally abrogated the constitution, and three years later the Austrians departed. When in 1859 a second war between Piedmont and Austria became imminent, the revolutionary agitation, never completely quelled, broke out once more. There was a division of opinion between the moderates, who favoured a constitutional Tuscany under Leopold, but forming part of an Italian federation, and the popular party, who aimed at the expulsion of the house of Lorraine and the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel. At last a compromise was arrived at and the grand duke was requested to abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitution, and take part in the war against Austria. Leopold having rejected these demands, the Florentines rose as one man and obliged him to quit Tuscany (April 27, 1859). A provisional government, led by Ubaldino Beruzzi and afterwards by Bettino Ricasoli, was established. It declared war against Austria | and then handed over its authority to Boncompagni, the Sardinian royal commissioner (May 9). A few weeks later a French force under Prince Napoleon landed in Tuscany to threaten Austria's flank, but in the meanwhile the emperor Napoleon made peace with Austria and agreed to the restoration of Leopold | and other Italian princes. Victor Emmanuel was obliged to recall the royal commissioners, but together with Cavour he secretly encouraged the provisional governments to resist the return of the despots, and the constituent assemblies of Tuscany, Romagna and the duchies voted for annexation to Sardinia. A Central Italian military league and a customs union were formed, and Cavour having overcome Napoleon's opposition by ceding Nice and Savoy, the king accepted the annexations and appointed his kinsman, Prince Carignano, viceroy of Central Italy with Ricasoli as governor-general (March 22, 1860). Union with The Sardinian parliament which met in April conthe Italian tained deputies from Central Italy, and after the Klagdom. occupation of the Neapolitan provinces and Sicily the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed (Feb. 18, 1861).

In

Since the union with Italy, Tuscany has ceased to constitute a separate political entity, although the people still preserve definite regional characteristics. It has increased in wealth and education, and owing to a good system of land tenure the peasantry are among the most prosperous in Italy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-A. von Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas (2 vols., Gotha, 1876-1877); Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana (Florence, 1850); E. Robiony, Gli ultimi dei Medici (Florence, 1905); C. Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento italiano (9 vols., Turin, 1888, &c.); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, Il Rivolgimento toscano e l'azione popolare (Florence, 1905). See also under FLORENCE; MEDICI; FERDINAND III.; LEOPOLD II.; BARTOLOMMEI; RICASOLI, &c. (L. V.*)

TUSCARORA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Their former range was on the Neuse river, North Carolina. Here in 1700 they lived in fifteen villages and were estimated at 6000. In 1711, as a protest against the encroachments on their territory, they declared war on the white settlers. After two years they were defeated and fled north to the Iroquois, in whose famous league they became the sixth nation, settling on the territory of the Oneida Indians, in New York state. the War of American Independence some of the tribe fought for the English and some against them. The remnant of them is divided between reservations in Canada and New York, and numbers about 700.

In

TUSCULUM, an ancient city of Latium, situated in a commanding position on the north edge of the outer crater ring of the Alban volcano, 14 m. N.E. of the modern Frascati. The highest point is 2198 ft. above sea-level. It has a very extensive view of the Campagna, with Rome lying 15 m. distant to the north-west. Rome was approached by the Via Latina (from which a branch road ascended to Tusculum, while the main road passed through the valley to the south of it), or by the Via Tusculana (though the antiquity of the latter road is doubtful).

According to tradition, the city was founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. When Tarquinius Superbus was expelled from Rome his cause was espoused by the chief of Tusculum, Octavius Mamilius, who took a leading part in the formation of the Latin League, composed of the thirty principal cities of Latium, banded together against Rome. Mamilius commanded the Latin army at the battle of Lake Regillus (497 B.C.), but was killed, and the predominance of Rome among the Latin cities was practically established. According to some accounts Tusculum became from that time an ally of Rome, and on that account frequently incurred the hostility of the other Latin cities. In 381 B.C., after an expression of complete submission to Rome, the people of Tusculum received the Roman franchise, but without the vote, and thenceforth the city continued to hold the rank of a municipium. Other accounts, however, speak of Tusculum as often allied with Rome's enemies

last of all with the Samnites in 323 B.C. Several of the chief Roman families were of Tusculan origin, e.g. the gentes Mamilia, Fulvia, Fonteia, Juventia and Porcia; to the last-named the celebrated Catos belonged. The town council kept the name of senate, but the title of dictator gave place to that of aedile. Notwithstanding this, and the fact that a special college of Roman equites was formed to take charge of the cults of the gods at Tusculum, and especially of the Dioscuri, the citizens resident there were neither numerous nor men of distinction. The villas of the neighbourhood had indeed acquired greater importance than the not easily accessible town itself, and by the end of the Republic, and still more during the imperial period, the territory of Tusculum was one of the favourite places of residence of the wealthy Romans. The number and extent of the remains almost defy description, and can only be made clear by a map. Even in the time of Cicero we hear of eighteen owners of villas there. Much of the territory (including Cicero's villa), but not the town itself, which lies far too high, was supplied with water by the Aqua Crabra. On the hill of Tusculum itself are remains of a small theatre (excavated in 1839), with a

reservoir behind it, and an amphitheatre. Both belong probably | to the imperial period, and so does a very large villa (the substructures of which are preserved), by some attributed, but wrongly, to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Between the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the Forum, of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many remains of houses and villas. The citadel-which stood on the highest point an abrupt rock-was approached only on one side, that towards the city, and even here by a steep ascent of 150 ft. Upon it remains of the medieval castle, which stood here antil 1191, alone are visible. The city walls, of which some remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the native "lapis Albanus" or peperino. They probably belong to the republican period. Below them is a well-house, with a roof formed of a pointed arch-generally held to go back to a somewhat remote antiquity, but hardly with sufficient reason.

The most interesting associations of the city are those connected with Cicero, whose favourite residence and retreat for study and literary work was at, or rather near, Tusculum. It was here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputations and other philosophical works. Much has been written on the position of his villa, but its true site still remains doubtful. The theory, which places it at or near Grotta Ferrata, some distance farther to the west, has most evidence to support it. Although Cicero (Pro Sestio, 43) speaks of his own house as being insignificant in size compared to that of his neighbour Gabinius, yet we gather from other notices in various parts of his works that it was a considerable building. It comprised two gymnasia (Div. i. 5), with covered porticus for exercise and philosophical discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3). One of these, which stood on higher ground, was called ". the Lyceum," and contained a library (Div. ii. 3); the other, on a lower site, shaded by rows of trees, was called "the Academy." The main building contained a covered porticus, or cloister, with apsidal recesses (exedrae) containing seats (see Ad Fam. vii. 23). It also had bathrooms (Ad Fam. xiv. 20), and contained a number of works of art, both pictures and statues in bronze and marble (Ep. ad All. i. 1, 8, 9, 10). The central atrium appears to have been small, as Cicero speaks of it as an atriolum (Ad Quint. Fr. iii. 1). The cost of this and the other house which he built at Pompeii led to his being burdened with debt (Ep. ad Att. ii. 1). Nothing now exists which can be asserted to be part of Cicero's villa with any degree of certainty. During the imperial period little is recorded about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of empire to Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, and for some centuries its counts occupied a leading position in Rome and were specially influential in the selection of the popes. During the 12th century there were constant struggles between Rome and Tusculum, and towards the close of the century (1191) the Romans, supported by the German emperor, gained the upper hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the whole city, were destroyed.

See L. Canina, Descr. dell' antico Tusculo (Rome, 1841); A. Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, iii. 293 (2nd ed., Rome, 1841); H. Dessau in Corp. inscript. lat. pp. 252 sqq. (Berlin, 1887); F. Grossi-Gondi, Il Tuscolano nell' eid classica (Rome, 1907): T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. 5 (London, 1907, 1909). (T. As.) TUSKEGEE, a town and county-seat of Macon county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the east part of the state, about 40 m. E. of Montgomery. Pop. (1900) 2170; (1910) 2803. It is served by the Tuskegee railway, which connects it with Chehaw, 5 m. distant, on the Western railway of Alabama. The city manufactures cotton seed. Tuskegee is chiefly known for its educational institutions-the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute and the Alabama Conference Female College (Methodist Episcopal Church, South; opened 1856). The former was founded in 1880 by an act of the state legislature as the Tuskegee State Normal School, and was opened in July 1881 by Booker T. Washington for the purpose of giving an industrial education to negroes; in 1893 it was incorporated under its present name. In 1899 the national Congress granted to the school 25,000 acres of mineral lands, of which 20,000 acres, valued at $200,000,

were unsold in 1909. Andrew Carnegie gave $600,000 to the institute in 1903, and the institute has a Carnegie library (1902), with about 15.000 volumes in 1909. In 1909 the endowment was about $1,389,600, and the school property was valued at about $1,117,660. It had in 1909 a property of 2345 acres (of which 1000 were farm lands, 1145 pasture and wood lands, and 200 school campus), and 100 buildings, many of brick, and nearly all designed and constructed, even to the making of the bricks, by the teachers and students. The state of Alabama appropriated $2000 for teachers' salaries in 1880, increased the appropriation to $3000 in 1884, and for many years gave $4500 annually; the school receives $10,000 annually from the John F. Slater Fund, and the same sum from the General Education Board. The institute comprises an academic department (in which all students are enrolled) with a seven years' course, the Phelps Hall bible training school (1892), with a three years' course, and departments of mechanical industries, industries for girls, and agriculture. The department of agriculture has an experiment station, established by the state in 1896, in which important experiments in cotton breeding have been carried on. There are a farm, a large truck garden, an orchard, and a bakery and canning factory. Forty different industries are taught. Cooking schools and night schools are carried on by the institute in the town of Tuskegee. In 1908-1909 the enrolment was 1494 students, of whom about one-quarter were women, and there were 167 teachers, all negroes. Tuition in the institute is free; board and living cost $8.50 a month; day students are allowed to "work-out " $1.50-$3.00 a month of this amount, and night students may thus pay all their expenses. At Tuskegee under the auspices of the institute are held the annual negro conferences (begun in 1891) and monthly farmers' institutes (begun in 1897); and short courses in agriculture (begun in 1904) are conducted. Farmers' institutes are held throughout the South by teachers of the school. In 1905 the institute took up the work of rural school extension. A model negro village (South Greenwood) has been built west of the institute grounds on land bought by the institute in 1901. Affiliated with the institute and having its headquarters in Tuskegee is the National Negro Business League (1900). The success of the institute is due primarily to its founder and principal, Booker T. Washington, and to the efficient board of trustees, which has included such men as Robert C. Ogden and Seth Low. Tuskegee was settled about 1800.

See Booker T. Washington, Working With the Hands (New York, 1904); and Thrasher, Tuskegee, Its Story and Its Work (Boston, 1900).

TUSSAUD, MARIE (1760-1850), founder of "Madame Tussaud's Exhibition" of wax figures in London, was born in Berne in 1760, the daughter of Joseph Grosholtz (d. 1760), an army officer. Her uncle, a doctor of Berne, John Christopher Curtius, had attracted the attention of the prince de Conti by his beautiful anatomical wax models, and had been induced to move to Paris, abandon his profession, and practise wax modelling as a fine art. His house became the resort of many of the talented men of the day, and here he brought his niece at the age of six, and taught her to model in wax. She became such an adept that she early modelled many of the great people of France, and was finally sent for to stay at the palace at Versailles to instruct the sister of Louis XVI., Mme Elizabeth, in the popular craze. It was from Curtius's exhibition that the mob obtained the busts of Necker and the duke of Orleans that were carried by the procession when on the 12th of July 1789 the first blood of the French Revolution was shed. During the terrible days that followed Marie Grosholtz was called upon to model the heads of many of the prominent leaders and victims of the Revolution, and was herself for three months a prisoner, having fallen under the suspicion of the committee of public safety. In 1794 she married a Frenchman named Tussaud, from whom she was separated in 1800. Her uncle having died in the former year, after some difficulty she secured permission from Napoleon to leave France, and she took with her to London the nucleus of her collection from the cabinet de cire

in the Palais Royal, and the idea of her " Chamber of Horrors" from Curtius's Caverne des Grands Voleurs, in the Boulevard du Temple. Her wax figures were successfully shown in the Strand on the site of the Lyceum theatre, and through the provinces, and finally the exhibition was established in permanent London quarters in Baker Street in 1833. Here Mme Tussaud died on the r6th of April 1850. She was succeeded by her son Francis Tussaud, he by his son Joseph, and he again by his son John Theodore Tussaud (b. 1859). The exhibition was moved in 1884 to a large building in Marylebone Road. TUSSER, THOMAS (c. 1524-1580), English poet, son of William and Isabella Tusser, was born at Rivenhall, Essex, about 1524. At a very early age he became a chorister in the collegiate chapel of the castle of Wallingford, Berkshire. He appears to have been pressed for service in the King's Chapel, the choristers of which were usually afterwards placed by the king in one of the royal foundations at Oxford or Cambridge. But Tusser entered the choir of St Paul's Cathedral, and from there went to Eton College. He has left a quaint account of his privations at Wallingford, and of the severities of Nicholas Udal at Eton. He was elected to King's College, Cambridge, in 1543, a date which has fixed the earliest limit of his birthyear, as he would have been ineligible at nineteen. From King's College he moved to Trinity Hall, and on leaving Cambridge went to court in the service of William, 1st Baron Paget of Beaudesart, as a musician. After ten years of life at court, he married and settled as a farmer at Cattiwade, Suffolk, near the river Stour, where he wrote his Hundreth Good Pointes of Husbandrie (1557, 1561, 1562, &c.). He never remained long in one place. For his wife's health he removed to Ipswich. After her death he married again, and farmed for some time at West Dereham. He then became a singing man in Norwich Cathedral, where he found a good patron in the dean, John Salisbury. After another experiment in farming at Fairsted, Essex, he removed to London, whence he was driven by the plague of 1572-1573 to find refuge at Trinity Hall, being matriculated as a servant of the college in 1573. At the time of his death he was in possession of a small estate at Chesterton, Cambridgeshire, and his will proves that he was not, as has sometimes been stated, in poverty of any kind, but had in some measure the thrift he preached. Thomas Fuller says he "traded at large in oxen, sheep, dairies, grain of all kinds, to no profit"; that he " Ispread his bread with all sorts of butter, yet none would stick thereon." He died on the 3rd of May 1580. An erroneous inscription at Manningtree, Essex, asserts that he was sixty-five years old.

The Hundreth Good Pointes was enlarged to A Hundreth good pointes of husbandry, lately maried unto a hundreth good poyntes of huswifery... the first extant edition of which, "newly corrected and amplified." is dated 1570. In 1573 appeared Five hundreth pointes of good husbandry... (reprinted 1577, 1580, 1585, 1586, 1590, &c.) The numerous editions of this book, which contained a metrical autobiography, prove that the homely and practical wisdom of Tusser's verse was appreciated. He gives directions of what is to be done in the farm in every month of the year, and minute instructions for the regulation of domestic affairs in general. The later editions include A dialogue of wyvynge and thryvynge (1562). Modern editions are by William Mavor (1812), by H. M. W. (1848), and by W. Payne and Sidney J. Herrtage for the English Dialect Society (1878).

TUTBURY, a town in the Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 4 m. N.W. of Burton-upon-Trent, picturesquely situated on the river Dove, a western tributary of the Trent, which forms the county boundary with Derbyshire. Pop. (1901), 1971. The station of the Great Northern and North Staffordshire railways is in Derbyshire. The fine church of St Mary has a nave of rich Norman work with a remarkable western doorway; there are Early English additions, and the apsidal chancel is a modern imitation of that style. There are ruins of a large castle standing high above the valley; these include a gateway of 14th-century work, strengthened in Caroline times, a wall enclosing the broad "Tilt Yard," and portions of dwelling rooms. Glass is the staple manufacture. Alabaster is found in the neighbourhood.

The early history of Tutbury (Toteberie, Stutesbury, Tuttebiri, Tudbury) is very obscure. It is said to have been a seat of the Mercian kings. After the Conquest it was granted to Hugh d'Avranches, who appears to have built the first castle there. At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was held by Henry de Ferrers, and "in the borough round it were 42 men living by their merchandize alone." Tutbury was the centre of an honour in Norman times, but the town remained small and unimportant, the castle and town continuing in the hands of the Ferrers until 1266, when, owing to Robert de Ferrers's participation in the barons' revolt, they were forfeited to the Crown and granted to Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster. They are still part of the duchy of Lancaster. Tutbury Castle was partially rebuilt by John of Gaunt, whose wife, Constance of Castile, kept her court there. Later it was, for a time, the prison of Mary Queen of Scots. During the Civil War it was held for the king but surrendered to the parliamentary forces (1646), and was reduced to ruins by order of parliament (1647). Richard III. granted to the inhabitants of Tutbury two fairs, to be held respectively on St Katharine's day and the feast of the Invention of the Cross; the fair on the 15th of August was famous until the end of the 18th century for its bull coursing, said to have been originally introduced by John of Gaunt.

In 1831 a large treasure of English silver coins of the 13th and 14th centuries was discovered in the bed of the river, and a series was placed in the British Museum. This treasure was believed to have been lost by Thomas, the rebellious earl of Lancaster, who was driven from Tutbury Castle by Edward II. in 1322.

See Mosley, History of Castle, Priory and Town of Tutbury (1832); Victoria County History: Stafford.

TUTICORIN, a seaport of British India in the Tinnevelly district of Madras. Pop. (1901), 28,048. It is the southern terminus of the South Indian railway, 443 m. S. W. of Madras city. In connexion with this railway a daily steamer runs to Colombo, 149 m. distant by sea. Tuticorin is an old town, long in possession of the Dutch, and has a large Roman Catholic population. It used to be famous for its pearl fisheries, which extended from Cape Comorin to the Pamban Channel between India and Ceylon; but owing to the deepening of the Pamban Channel in 1895 these banks no longer produce the pearl oysters in such remunerative quantities, though conch shells are still found and exported to Bengal. As a set-off to this, Tuticorin has advanced greatly as a port since the opening of the railway in 1875, though it has only an open roadstead, where vessels must anchor two and a half miles from the shore; it is the second port in Madras and the sixth in all India. The exports are chiefly rice and livestock to Ceylon, cotton, tea, coffee and spices. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton and a cotton mill.

TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect), properly a legal term, borrowed from Roman law, for a guardian of an infant (see ROMAN LAW and INFANT). Apart from this usage, which survives particularly in Scots law, the word is chiefly current in an educational sense of a teacher or instructor. It is thus specifically applied to a fellow of a college at a university with particular functions, connected especially with the supervision of the undergraduate members of the college. These functions differ in various universities. Thus, at Oxford, a fellow, who is also a tutor, besides lecturing, or taking his share of the general teaching of the college, has the supervision and responsibility for a certain number of the undergraduates during their period of residence; at Cambridge the tutor has not necessarily any teaching functions to perform, but is more concerned with the economic and social welfare of the pupils assigned to his care. In American universities the term is applied to a teacher who is subordinate to a professor, his appointment being for a year or a term of years.

TUTTLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the left bank of the Danube, which is here crossed by a bridge, 37 m. by rail N.E. of Schaffhausen, and at the

the plateau. Ochre, brick, and pottery clays, as also limestone for building, are obtained, and there are chalybeate springs. The soil, which is clayey for the most part, is not fertile as a rule.

Tuttlingen is a very ancient place, and is chiefly memorable for the victory gained here on the 24th of November 1643 by the Austrians and Bavarians over the French. It was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1803. It has belonged to Württemberg since 1404.

TUXEDO, a town of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., about 40 m. N.N.W. of New York City, near the New Jersey state line. Pop. (1890), 1678; (1900), 2277; (1905), 2865; (1910), 2858. Tuxedo is served by the Erie railway. About I m. west of the railway station is Tuxedo Lake, which with 13,000 acres of surrounding country was taken for debt in 1814 by the elder Pierre Lorillard, who built a shooting-box here and sold wood from the land. The second Pierre Lorillard (1833-1901) formed the Tuxedo Park Association for the development of the tract, and on the 1st of June 1886 the Tuxedo Club and Tuxedo Park were opened; here there has grown up a remarkable collection of private establishments for the enjoyment of country life by certain wealthy families, who form a social club to whom the privileges are restricted. The area covers a variety of wild and cultivated scenery, and is beautifully laid out and utilized; there are golf links, a tennis and racket club, and game preserves, with excellent trout and bass fishing in the lake.

TUY, a city of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra, on the right bank of the river Miño (Portuguese Minho), opposite Valença do Minho, which stands on the left bank in Portuguese territory. Pop. (1900), 11,113. Tuy is the southern terminus of the railways to Santiago de Compostela and Corunna; Valença do Minho is the northern terminus of the Portuguese railway to Oporto. Near Tuy rises the Monte San Cristobal, whose far-spreading spurs constitute the fertile and picturesque Vega del Oro. To the east is the river Louro, a right-hand tributary of the Miño abounding in salmon, trout, lamprey, eels and other fishes; and beyond the Louro, on the railway to Corunna, are the hot mineral springs of San Martin de Caldelas. Tuy is a clean and pleasant city with well-built houses, regular streets and many gardens. The cathedral, founded in the 12th century, but largely restored between the 15th and 19th, is of a massive and fortress-like architecture. Its half-ruined cloister and noble eastern façade date from the 14th century. There are several large convents and ancient parish churches, an old episcopal palace, hospitals, good schools, a theatre, and a very handsome bridge over the Miño built in 1885. The industries of Tuy include tanning, brewing, the distillation of spirits and the manufacture of soap. The city has also a brisk agricultural trade.

During part of the 7th century Tuy was the Visigothic capital. It was taken from the Moors by Alphonso VII. in the 12th century. As a frontier fortress it played an important part in the wars between Portugal and Castile. (

Nearly the whole of Tver is drained by the upper Volga and its tributaries, several of which (Vazuza, Dubna, Sestra, Ivertsa and the tributaries of the Mologa) are navigable. The Vyshnevolfrom its source) with the Baltic, and the Tikhvin system connects otsk system of canals connects the Volga (navigable some 60 m. the Mologa with Lake Ladoga. The Msta, which flows into Lake Ilmeñ, and its tributary the Tsna drain Tver in the north-west, and This network of rivers the Southern Dvina rises in Ostashkov. highly favours navigation: corn, linseed, spirits, flax, hemp, timber, metals and manufactured wares to the annual value of £1,500,000 are shipped from, or brought to, the river ports of the government. Lakes, ponds and marshes are numerous in the west and north-west, Lake Seliger-near the source of the Volga-and Lake Mztino being deciduous in the south-are rapidly disappearing, but still cover the most important. The forests-coniferous in the north and 32% of the surface. The climate is continental; the average yearly temperature at Tver (41°.5 F.) is the same as that of Orel and Tambov (Jan. 11°, July 67°).

The population was estimated in 1906 as 2,053,000, almost entirely Great Russian, but including about 117,700 Karelians. The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Tver, Byezhetsk, Kalyazin, Kashin, Korsheva, Ostashkov, Rzhev, Staritsa, Torzhok, Vesyegonsk, Vyshniy Volochok and Zubtsov. Nearly 2,000,000 acres are under cereals. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. The sowing of grass is spreading, owing to the efforts of the zemstvos or local councils, and improved machinery is being introduced. Livestock breeding is also important, and dairy produce is exported. Manufactures have grown rapidly. Cotton-mills, flour-mills, tanneries, sugar-refineries, iron-foundries and distilleries are the chief establishments. The government of Tver is also the seat of important village industries, of which a remarkable variety is carried on, nearly every district and even every village having its own speciality. The principal of these are weaving, lace-making, boat-building, and the making of boots, saddlery, coarse pottery, sacks, nets, wooden wares, nails, locks, other hardware and agricultural implements and felt goods.

TVER, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 104 m. by rail N.W. of Moscow, on both banks of the Volga (here crossed by a floating bridge) at its confluence with the Tvertsa. The low right bank is protected from inundations by a dam. Pop. (1885), 39,280; (1900), 45,644. Tver is an archiepiscopal see of. the Orthodox Greek Church. The oldest church dates from 1564, and the cathedral from 1689.' A public garden occupies the site of the former fortress. The city possesses a good archaeological museum, housed in a former imperial palace. The industries have developed greatly, especially those in cotton, the chief works being cotton and flour mills, but there are also machinery works, glass works, sawmills, tanneries, railway carriage works and a steamer-building wharf. Among the domestic industries are nail-making and the manufacture of hosiery for export to Moscow and St Petersburg. The traffic of the town is considerable, Tver being an intermediate place for the trade of both capitals with the governments of the upper Volga.