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d) The candidate must be given opportunity to observe good teaching, study its method under guidance, and finally give instruction under normal conditions long enough to demonstrate his ability to teach.

"The lesson from German experience is that to liberal culture you must add special scholarship, and to special scholarship, professional knowledge, and to professional knowledge, teaching skill."

Here is the ideal toward which we are striving, tho we understand that there are many steps to be taken before it can be realized. In the Middle West the leading city superintendents are urging their teachers to go back to the college or the university for a year and take courses in education. Where the best salaries are paid, the school authorities can demand and obtain welltrained teachers. Those school communities which pay low salaries generally get poorly prepared or inexperienced teachers; the teachers that become efficient are quickly transferred to some other place paying better and offering more opportunities, and so those communities are left with teachers that probably earn the pitiful salaries paid.

4. In the Middle West the accrediting system used by practically all the colleges and universities has been found to improve the conditions of the better and larger high schools. Most of the universities have high-school inspectors (in Indiana, the State Board of Education acts in this capacity), and they have set a certain standard to be met by the secondary school holding a commission. They require that the minimum scholastic attainment of all teachers in commissioned high schools shall be equivalent to graduation from a recognized college, and shall include special training in the subjects they teach; "the number of daily periods of classroom instruction should not exceed five, each to extend over at least forty minutes in the clear;" the laboratory and library facilities must be adequate to the needs of the instruction; "all schools whose records show an abnormal number of pupils per teacher, as based on the average number belonging, even tho they may technically meet all other requirements, are rejected." Thirty is considered the

maximum.

Certainly, these are splendid rules, but this association of colleges and universities "has omitted for the present the consideration of all schools whose teaching force consists of fewer than five teachers exclusive of the superintendent." Tho this last may be a splendid rule to follow, it seems to me that the most important work to be done by inspectors is being neglected. In Indiana, the State Board of Education has commissioned 240 high schools, which leaves 527 non-commissioned high schools that are not inspected by the members of the State Board. This is the condition of practically every state in the Middle West, and it means that the schools that especially need direction. and encouragement are ignored. If money is needed for inspection, it should be furnished, for we cannot expect to raise the standard of secondary education thruout the country unless we give practical aid and direction to more than one-third of the high schools.

VIII

C. H. JUDD, PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, YALE UNIVERSITY

1. The preparation of a high-school teacher has never included as much attention to special methods as has the training of elementary-school teachers. Much greater emphasis has been laid in preparation for high-school work upon a broad general training and upon training in the special line in which the teacher is to give instruction. These practices of the past are being called in question at the present time by many who regard the work of the high school as inferior in method to the work in the elementary schools. Indeed, the criticism is very frequently made by superintendents and those who have charge of elementary work that the poorest teaching in the schools is to be found in the high schools. The criticism undoubtedly has some justification in actual experience, but in the opinion of the present writer the remedy is not to be found in the institution of normal schools for high-school teachers as has sometimes been suggested.

2. The fact is that the work of a high-school teacher is more general in character than the work of an elementary teacher, and, from the nature of the case, high-school instruction is less susceptible to general definition in point. of its method. The high-chool teacher is not called upon to drill in the fundamental forms of knowledge, his problem is rather to open up before the developing mind great bodies of information and new forms of thought. The individual with whom the high-school teacher has to deal is very much more of a distinct personality than is the child in the elementary school. Indeed, the characteristic fact about the high-school pupil is that he is reaching a stage in life in which he is differentiated by his development from those who are about him; he becomes clearly conscious for the first time of his own personal interests and his own personal place in the world. To deal with a class of high-school students in anything like an adequate way requires that the teacher shall have the keenest sense for the individual characteristics of the members of his class.

3. There is one statement from which there is not likely to be any dissent. A teacher in a high school should have a broad general education which carries him far beyond anything that he will be called upon to teach to his students. Put in the concrete this statement means that graduation from a college is the minimum requirement which can be tolerated in the case of a high-school teacher. If the candidate is not a graduate of a college he should be able to give evidence of at least the equivalent of a college course in independent study. It is not so much the formal compliance with the academical requirement as it is the study which is implied by an academical degree that should be considered. No young man or woman should present himself as a candidate for a position in high-school mathematics, for example, who has not mastered the higher branches of this subject. Nor should he present himself in science unless he has taken more than a freshman or sophomore course in physics

and chemistry. The high-school teacher must be qualified in the subject which he is to teach by a specialized study of this subject far enough to become acquainted not only with its elements, but also with some of its more advanced phases. If there is to be any limitation of training in preparation for high-school positions it should not be along these lines.

4. Not only should the high-school teacher be acquainted with the subject that he is to teach but he should also be acquainted with the institution in. which he is to teach. More than for any other teacher is it essential for the teacher in the high school that he should understand the history and present position of the high school. This institution stands in the midst of our educational system; its influence upon the lower schools and upon the schools which are above it give it a central character and importance which has been felt very powerfully in the historical development of American education. One needs only to turn to the history of our middle schools by Professor Brown to recognize that the influence of these schools has been very large in determining the revision of the course of study in American colleges, and at the same time this influence has been very marked upon the development of the public schools, especially thru the preparation which the high school has given to many of the teachers in the elementary schools. To be sure it is very desirable that all teachers have some knowledge of the historical development and present condition of the schools, but the elementary teacher is more likely to be called upon to follow a line of teaching which has been marked out by the superintendent, and the college teacher may devote himself to his specialty and leave the problems of reorganizing the college curriculum to the forces which are operating thru the elective system and thru other general movements to determine the character and scope of college courses. No high-school teacher, on the other hand, can neglect, as he prepares his courses, the intimate problems of organization which come up in connection with his work. Our high schools would not be bound to traditions if there existed among high-school teachers a clear historical insight of the origin and character of the traditions which have, in a very large measure, determined the development of high-school courses.

We may assert, therefore, that a study of the history of education is essential to preparation for high-school teaching. There should be some instruction. offered in our American colleges on the historical and institutional relations of the high school if colleges are to meet this second obvious requirement as fully as they meet the requirement which has been described above in discussing general training in the teacher's specialty.

There is a very general movement in American colleges looking toward the satisfaction of the demand here expressed for a historical course. Almost every institution is introducing a course in the history of education as an essential part of the curriculum for those who are to teach. It is highly desirable that his work be placed upon the same academical footing as the well-established courses in history in our colleges. The history of education has long

been required of German and French teachers in the higher institutions in those countries. It would be quite impossible to find among the teachers in the German Gymnasium or the French lycée anyone as ignorant of the movements in the history of education as can be found in every high-school faculty in this country. The course of history of education should not be a formal course such as is offered in many institutions. It should not be merely a course dealing with the educational reformers who have co-operated primarily in the development of elementary schools. It should be rather a discussion of the whole development of educational institutions, including especially the higher schools. Such a work as Paulsen's on the higher schools in Germany should be prepared for the special use of colleges.

5. A third requirement which should be made upon the student who is preparing to teach in the high school is that he prepare himself to treat in a thoroly scientific way the individual problems which confront him in the person of each pupil and in each new phase of the presentation of his subject. Much could be said in favor of a modification of the requirements imposed upon teachers in the elementary schools, so that they also shall be trained, not in special methods, but in the general scientific method of treating all educational problems. Yet if the elementary teacher adheres strictly to the same elementary method of procedure, he will not go so far astray as will the high-school teacher who attempts to deal in a stereotyped way with the highly individualized pupil of the high school. Too great emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that every high-school problem is a distinct problem requiring a distinct and intelligent mode of treatment. The teacher who has not cultivated flexibility of sympathy and procedure should have no place in a highschool faculty. When a boy or girl shows inability to grasp a problem from one point of view, there is certainly no justification for a reiteration of the method which has failed and an effort to make the individual child conform himself to this ordinary method. The teacher should be prepared to meet the intellectual difficulties of a high-school student with a flexible method. His problem is therefore essentially a scientific problem. It consists in investigating the case in hand and meeting it exactly as a trained scientific engineer would meet his problem. No general rule can be laid down for the building of bridges. The suggestion which has been made above, that the high-school teacher become acquainted with the historical problems and historical development of his institution, will furnish much of the material in method that may be helpful to the individual teacher, but beyond these suggestions which can be derived from a careful study of institutions and their growth, there is relatively little to be derived from any mere restatement of high-school methods. What the high-school teacher ought to have is that intangible something which we call the scientific spirit. He can secure that only from the thoro mastery of some experimental science. If, for example, by a course in chemistry the student has been trained to take any substance which comes into his hands and work out a careful analysis of its constituents and the mode of their combi

nation, he has certainly acquired something which is more significant than the facts of chemical composition; he has acquired a method of attacking the problem which comes before him. In the same way, if his studies have been along biological rather than the chemical lines, if he has learned how to observe the characteristics of certain living forms and how to relate these characteristics to the environment in which the organisms have grown up and in which they live, he has acquired again a method and spirit of observation and study which will be of great assistance to him in his contact with pupils.

The demand which is expressed in this discussion of the scientific spirit is so broad and general in its scope that the single illustrations should not be taken to cover the whole demand which is being expressed. No student who pursues a course in chemistry or a course in biology or a course in any branch of science merely for the sake of the facts which we will derive from these courses has acquired the scientific attitude which will lead him to take up every problem which he confronts in a scientific way. The best kind of training for the scientific spirit which is being demanded in these statements is the kind of training which is required in most institutions for the advanced degree of doctor of philosophy. The essential requirement for this degree is that the candidate shall exhibit ability to carry on independent research. Our American institutions suffer in comparison with the German and French institutions below the university in the fact that the German and French institutions are manned by those who have shown themselves able to do scientific work of an independent sort sufficient to give them the doctor's degree. It is perhaps too early in our American educational development to demand that the teachers. in our high schools be doctors of philosophy in every case, but every institution which is preparing teachers of high schools should make a special effort to introduce into the course of study some training of the sort which shall make its graduates independent in dealing with educational difficulties. Even if a man is going to teach Latin or literature or history, one phase of his problem in the high school will be to deal with individual minds. These he must diagnose on the spot; no set formal method can be given to him. He must be able to cope with new situations that arise in a period in the student's life when there is the largest degree of variation and the most capricious type of development. The training which a high-school teacher needs is closely comparable to that needed by a physician. No student of medicine is allowed. to feel that he can learn formal methods of treating cases. He may become acquainted with the general forms of treatment that are utilized by those who are older in experience than himself (this would be comparable to the historical and institutional training which was advocated above), and then the main. emphasis in the physician's education is laid upon the scientific studies which will render him independent as far as possible of any formal precepts and make him a student of every case with which he has to deal.

The fulfilment of this particular requirement does not call for any modification in the present course of study provided in American colleges, but it does

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