of human nature in general, and of the nature of secondary-school pupils in particular. He should also complete a course treating of the psychology of learning under the conditions of school education. These courses should confer upon him greater efficiency in adjusting his subject as a whole and in each part to the needs and capabilities of his pupils. Next, he should complete courses treating of the history and principles of education, so that he may realize what are the aims of educational work, viewed in the light of contemporary thought, and how these aims have been developed. These courses should make him conscious of the supreme ends to keep in view in his teaching, and what should be the relation of his subject to the other work of his pupils. and of the school as a whole. Finally, the teacher should complete a course treating of his proper relations to the extra-school interests in the community in which he teaches.

These professional studies may best be pursued as graduate work. The training of the secondary-school teacher will be seriously defective so long as he completes both his academic and his professional studies during his undergraduate course. The courses in education described above should occupy two-thirds of a graduate year. If the candidate spends no time in graduate study, as is the case generally at present, then these professional studies should occupy an equivalent of one-half of his senior year.

5. Requirement of observation and practice.—It is universally recognized that effective instruction in medicine, law, engineering, agriculture, and the like requires opportunities for concrete demonstration, and for practice to a limited extent at least. Teaching is no exception in this regard. It is, however, a fact that education, concerned as it is with the exposition of principles for effective instruction, is more seriously handicapped than any other subject in observing the principles it expounds. There is need in the first place of an educational museum, wherein may be displayed specimens of all useful educational appliances, illustrative materials, textbooks, etc. It is imperative, in the second place, that there be in every institution training high-school teachers a fully organized and well-equipped school typifying the school system in which students will teach. This school should be constantly utilized to give definiteness, concreteness, and vitality to instruction in every phase of educational theory and practice. So far as feasible it should be utilized also for the testing of educational theories at present in dispute. Finally, it should be utilized. for the purpose of initiating the novice in the practice of his art. It will not ordinarily be possible or desirable to perfect him in technique, but his special needs can be discovered, and he can be put in the way of curing his faults by his own efforts while he is actually in service.

The schools of observation and practice should be regarded as laboratories for the work in education, and in no sense as schools preparatory to the university. They should be under the control of the department of education, which should be responsible for curricula and methods of teaching and discipline. So far as possible the department of education should secure the

active co-operation of all departments of the university having in charge subjects taught in an elementary way in the schools in question. The teachers' courses in the university should be presented with constant reference to the work done in these schools.

5a. Wherever it is at all feasible, the university should enter into relations with the high schools in its vicinity so that candidates may have some practice under ordinary public-school conditions. The university should contribute to the salaries of a certain number of teachers in these high schools, to the end that unusually competent persons may be secured, who may serve the university as critics of practice teachers. These critics should be appointed by the university, upon the recommendation of the department of education, and subject to the approval of the board of education in charge of the high school. Practical work of the character indicated should occupy at least one-third of the time which the candidate devotes to professional studies, and it should be regarded as absolutely essential to the efficient training of high-school teachers.

XII (special)

REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS

FREDERICK E. BOLTON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STATE UNIVERSITY

I.

OF IOWA

Requirements for High-School Certification.

II. The University and the College as Training-Schools for High-School Teachers.

III. Standards in Germany.

IV. Standards Suggested for American Schools.

In beginning to prepare this paper an attempt was made to secure thru a questionnaire statistics showing the specific kind of training and experience which the high-school teachers have actually had in a number of typical states. The inadequate returns received made any exhaustive statistical study impossible. In only a few states has any attempt been made to gather such data. Some state superintendents replied in such a way as to indicate their probable feeling that such information would be entirely superfluous. But not until the statistics can be arrayed so as to show the glaring lack of uniformity and how many teachers are below even moderate standards can we expect to improve conditions. School boards and legislatures must be convinced thru unequiv ocal testimony that woeful deficiencies exist often where the public boasts the most. About buildings and grounds the popular mind may have some intelligent opinions, but the ordinary school public does not discriminate between the expert teacher and the time-server. In the minds of the people, so long as friction is avoided, any teacher is considered a good teacher.

Failing to secure the adequate data concerning the actual preparation of teachers in service, I have investigated the laws of all the states to find the

legal provisions concerning high-school teaching. We should bear in mind that the actual preparation made by many, even a majority, is much better than that demanded by statutes. Local demands in the better cities are naturally in advance of legislation. Statutory provisions can seldom be secured until the wisdom of the requirements has been rather generally demonstrated. There is very little constructive legislation, especially school legislation. Legislative bodies in old-settled states are very conservative and merely reflect what they believe to be public opinion by confirming thru statutory provisions what is well established in practice. Since they are usually so ignorant concerning educational needs it is seldom possible to convince them of desirable legislation until long after various localities have proceeded way beyond the measures enacted. In new states where traditions do not fetter and public opinion is little crystallized much more constructive legislation is secured than in the older states.

As was believed, most of the states were found to be without legislation differentiating the high-school teacher from any other. In many school codes. the term high school does not appear. This branch of the public school system is a product of evolution which has come largely without legislative enactment. Localities developed at first simply "upper rooms," "higher departments," etc., and then bestowed the name high school without waiting permission or measurement by state authority.

Thus, singularly enough, in most states, altho state certificates and diplomas are awarded to those who seek them, yet nobody is required to have them. Legally, the one possessing the lowest grade of county or town certificate may teach in the highest grade of school. Many cities have secured state authority to regulate the certification of their own teachers and usually have differentiated the certificates for the various grades of work. There is a crying need now for all states to make the differentiation. There is also great desirability of securing uniform laws in all the states so as to secure inter-state comity in matters of certification.

A few pioneer states have secured desirable legislation relating to the certification of the various grades of teachers and it might be parenthetically observed that these states are already forging ahead in educational matters in a variety of ways.

I. REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH-SCHOOL CERTIFICATION

In the following paragraphs mention is made mainly of those states which have specific legislation determining the qualifications of high-school teachers. In general, where the laws simply state that all teachers must possess a legal license and do not distinguish between elementary and secondary no mention is made of the states. A few others are mentioned because it was possible to secure definite statistics concerning the teachers in service.

In Arizona only those holding the diploma of the Territorial Board of Education or the Board of Education of the Normal Schools of the territory

are eligible to teach in the high schools. Diplomas and state certificates from the other states may be recognized by the Territorial Board.

Colorado demands that all who teach in the high schools of that state shall take a county examination covering all the branches taught in the high school. In the District of Columbia all high-school teachers must have a special certificate which qualifies the holder for that grade of work only.

In Connecticut there are 4,316 teachers in the state of whom about 1,400 are normal-school graduates and about 400 graduates of colleges and universities. Most of these 400 are teaching in high schools. Inasmuch as there are only 66 high schools in the state it is probably true that most of the teachers in the high schools are college or university graduates.

California has set the highest pace in the United States with reference to the qualifications for high-school teachers. Under statutory provisions the State Board of Education grants all certificates for teaching in the high schools of the state. These may be obtained by examination or otherwise but “no credentials shall be prescribed or allowed unless the same, in the judgment of said board, are the equivalent of a diploma of graduation from the University of California and are satisfactory evidence that the holder thereof has taken an amount of pedagogy equivalent to the minimum amount of pedagogy prescribed by the State Board of Education of this state, and include a recommendation for a high-school certificate from the faculty of the institution in which the pedagogical work shall have been taken." California accepts the diplomas from all the universities belonging to the Association of American Universities, and also from fifteen other selected colleges and universities thruout the United States, provided the graduates have taken courses in the theory of education, or have had actual practice in teaching under supervision of the pedagogical faculty, equivalent to twelve hours per week for one-half year. Graduates of all the accepted colleges not belonging to the Association. of American Universities must have completed subsequent to graduation onehalf year of advanced academic or professional (pedagogical) work, in residence, either at the same institution or at some other accepted institution, or in lieu of such graduate study, have taught with decided success, as regular teacher or as principal, at least twenty months in any reputable school, elementary or secondary. After July, 1906, at least one-third of the prescribed pedagogy shall consist of actual teaching in a well-equipped trainingschool of secondary grade, directed by the department of education. After July 1, 1908, practice teaching in a school of the grammar grade in connection with the California state normal schools will be accepted as an equivalent.

In Florida, high schools cannot be recognized as such unless the teachers employed to give instruction therein are competent to teach the subjects required by the official course of study, and no school will be granted state aid unless such teachers are provided. While it is not now deemed practicable to require all such teachers to hold state certificates, it is recommended that preference always be given by boards to the holders of such certificates.

In Iowa, the most democratic and individualistic state in the Union, there is utter lack of uniformity. All depends upon local autonomy. The term high school does not appear in any legislative enactment, there is no definition of the term except that which each community chooses to give to it, and the state superintendent's office has no authority to regulate its courses or prescribe qualifications for the teachers employed. Any one possessing a third grade county certificate may legally teach in any high school in the state. Notwithstanding this chaotic condition of educational legislation the state has many high schools which are unexcelled anywhere. The wealth of the state, the life in small cities possessing large rural population within a ra ius of a few miles of each, the uniformity of nationality, the lack of slums and factory districts give natural advantages which would easily give it with proper legislation the greatest school system of the United States. The state is suffering because of its prejudices against any form of centralization of

power.

There are in the state about 650 graded schools which call themselves high schools. Nearly all of these might become high schools if the proper teaching force were employed, proper equipment secured, and a little effort made to enlist the interest of the rural population in the immediate vicinity. This has been demonstrated in many small villages where they have become awake to the possibilities. As it is, not more than 250, judged by proper standards, have any right to be called high schools. There are 185 schools on the accredited list of the State University. In these there are 879 teachers, including the principals and superintendents. Of these 453 are university or college graduates, 189 have had from one to three years in some college, 84 are normal-school graduates only. The remainder have had very little. academic or professional training. Regrettable as it is, one in fourteen or one teacher in every third accredited school has had no institutional training beyond that afforded by the high school, and that usually in the home school. Of the total number employed 332 had been teaching ten years or more, 265 had five or more years' experience, while 61 were beginners. Statistics from all the schools which have any claim to the title of high school would show a much smaller number of college graduates and many more raw recruits.

Louisiana definitely recognizes high schools and makes an attempt to secure the best quality of teachers for these schools. In 1892 a law was passed imposing a penalty on all local school boards who failed to give preference to state normal-school graduates and graduates of colleges when employing teachers.

In Maine, according to the laws of 1904, the highest grade of state certificate is necessary to teach in any free high schools of the state. Candidates who are college graduates or graduates from the college preparatory course or its equivalent in a first-class academy or high school, and whose average rank is 90 and whose rank in any subject is not less than 70 will receive a certificate of the highest grade. Others who are not graduates but whose rank is excep