execution along original lines, to the end that the pupil may fully enter into that deep and lasting joy which comes when he has thought out something, created something entirely his own. Such a product is an art product, for art is the expression of joy in work.

The well-rounded course in manual training requires a psychological basis to insure its educational fulfillment. The work for any one grade will

be determined by the nature of the child to be taught, that is by his mental and physical needs and capacities. At different stages of his growth and development these factors will need to be taken into consideration. Boys and girls will have to be regarded as totally different beings. It is an error to train both along the same school lines generally.

In the future more than in the past the child's native interests will be taken into consideration. The course will not, however, grow out of the fleeting, spasmodic, and temporary impulses of childhood into a fragmentary, unrelated scheme of work, but temporary interests and needs will be wisely directed and shaped toward purposeful and permanent ends.

In addition to individual interests, aptitudes, and needs, education and training will have to reckon with social, industrial, and agricultural demands as they reflect and in turn act upon local conditions and real life. The strongest kind of relations should be established between the school and the social life of the community. The establishment of such relations affords opportunity for the study of typical industries and occupations in the world at large and serves as an introduction to the history of their development.

In this particular our courses are the weakest. We have succeeded well in bringing into play tool practice quite representative of the best performance in actual industrial occupations, tho by no means in all instances. Technical facts have not been safe in the hands of teachers. The social aspect has been most seriously neglected. No greater function can manual training have than to put the child into possession of its social inheritance, for he ought to fully sympathize with men and women engaged in industrial pursuits and occupation. The child should know society as it knows the things society has need of. Our manual-training courses should seek to establish this larger relatedness with many-sided life.

Reality does not always characterize the type of article made. The chief idea evidently is to emphasize doing at the expense of consistent execution by well-defined means and methods. A random selection of isolated problems lends itself to this idea, at expense of consistent thought-provoking exercises. The natural development of the powers of the child are sacrificed for the finished product intended for display. The finished product we must have. Simplicity, structional beauty, and appropriate design will prove its artistic merit and value. At the same time it will stand the embodiment of conscious doing, the expression of well-conceived plans and purposes. The art-craft movement with its sane and wholesome ideals will find expression and give color especially to the work in the upper grades.

The planning, the execution, the finished problem will lead the child from the immediate work at hand to a vast field of related and highly educative matter found in books and the realms of science and industry. Why should not the mutual ramification of subject matter composing a body of thought as valuable as history and literature, perhaps more cultural because more humanizing-bearing so intimately upon many-sided life, represent a body of thought and action as dignified as any of the older school studies and as truly educational? Why does it not command more serious attention from all school officers and grade teachers? Why is it so often the fag end of the school work? The reasons are evident in the criticisms I have read. We cannot lay claim that the short time allowed handwork and the position it holds in the school program is evidence of a non-progressive school board and an unappreciative attitude on the part of grade teachers. Rather must we cast out the mote which is in our own eyes to see clearly the beam which is in our neighbor's eyes. It is true nevertheless that if we hope to accomplish what we believe manual training can accomplish more time must be awarded it. A stronger appreciation must be developed, ample equipment and suitable materials must be provided.

To organize and keep in operation an adequate course in manual training needs for its final fulfillment earnest, sincere, intelligent, progressive, hearty co-operation from all school officers and teachers. Sympathy for manual training should not be fostered to further selfish ambition or magnify the position of any teacher directly concerned with its organization and administration. The work must live for the boys and girls who are to be educated by it. When this is done and when its educational basis is fully recognized and appreciated then "all things shall be added unto it."

This presentation may appear somewhat dogmatic. I at least wished to get before you certain matters, and I presume that if there is anything conclusive about what I have said the following summarization can be made: An adequate course of study is one which

1. Aims to be truly educational and imparts to the individual knowledge and power that makes for social and industrial efficiency and well-being.

2. Takes into recognition the psychological and physiological life of the individual at each stage of development and the differentiation of the sexes, and adapts the work to the needs and capacities of each.

3. In so far as practicable will correlate with the industrial or agricultural occupations of the community and the interpretation of the same.

4. Will assert its greatest merit in a large way by the wholesome, wellarranged, well-defined, clear and distinctive body of thought and activity made directly applicable to the pupil thru the instrumentality of tools and materials, and finished product.

II. FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF CHILD-STUDY FLETCHER B. DRESSLAR, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.

Manual training is an expression variously used and variously interpreted. Without taking time to enter into details of these differences, the point of view here taken will be this: Manual training in its larger and, for the future, truer sense, means learning how to enter into organizing activity with the hands. It will be seen at once that this definition is not meant to make sharp distinctions but to call attention to the wider educational outlook for this much-discussed subject. In the first place, it includes plowing as well as sloyd; gardening as well as carpentry; digging in the ground as well as printing; feeding and caring for stock as well as work in metals; milking cows as well as making boxes; making hay as well as making furniture; caring for fruit trees as well as making a toy train; playing ball and tennis as well as upholstering; learning to drive nails as well as to sew; making garments for people as well as for dolls; cooking as well as crocheting; planning a house as well as trimming a hat; spinning and weaving as well as cutting and making; climbing trees as well as rope ladders in a gymnasium; swimming as well as knitting; washing fabrics as well as darning; disinfecting as well as making puddings; in short coming into active participation with all those fundamental and useful occupations which competently educated people must know about and appreciate in a vital and definite way, in order to understand the work-a-day world and the various forms of manual labor. Most people lack in breadth and depth of useful experience to knit their souls together and to give them a point of view worthy of modern demands.

As I have indicated, I am going to use this term manual training in the broadest possible way, because I am persuaded that the most serious hindrance to practical education in this direction has come through the illiberal attempt to make it synonymous with handwork in wood, iron, or some sorts of workable materials. Imitating sloyd models, whether in wood or cardboard, is all right, as far as it goes, but it does not go very far. Making furniture and working with iron are very helpful processes, but they must not be considered other than useful forms of many kinds of manual training. And so with all the rest of the valuable lines of work suggested and carried out in some of our best and most helpful schools. And without further introduction may I plunge into the subject as I conceive it, and as it has been made plain to us thru the results of physiological investigations and the growth of our knowledge of child-nature.

In the first place it is fundamental to see that growth in consciousness is a direct result of the growth in the widening and organizing relations of sensory stimulation to motor response; likewise that a diminution of consciousness accompanies the growth of habitual responses made to a given set of sensory stimulations. For the most part we are not conscious of the movements of our limbs while walking, because the whole process has become so habitual and the flow of sensory stimulus over into motor excitation is not retarded or

prevented by having to overcome the native hindrances which once existed between the sensory and motor parts involved. But we have a right to say that the baby during the process of learning to walk is tremendously conscious of almost every movement involved in the process. Without further illustration, let us extend this notion to the learning or elaboration of any muscular adjustments. Consciousness is keen and vivid and radiant only at those times when the stimulations toward behavior, whether ideational or external, meet with resistance in passing over into their proper response. With the child in its earlier years the sensory or external stimulations play a much larger rôle than they do as life and organization harmoniously progress. That is to say, the conscious life of a child is far more dependent upon its immediate external environment and the demands of this environment, than upon the ideational products of reactions already organized. Now I submit that this is the fundamental doctrine about which all our programs of manual training should be organized. We must begin with the organization of those important muscular processes which are most readily called forth by objective stimulations, and gradually and in accordance with the growth of internal relations, proceed to work from and under the guidance of ideal stimulations. Of course these two processes are more or less united in all we do, but we must see to it that the natural and present value of each is properly estimated. But we should remember not to minimize the first. This precaution is especially necessary because the teacher has reached that degree of organization in which the ideal has become predominant.

But how, you ask, can this principle guide us in the active work of manual training?

1. It operates to vastly broaden the outlook and to expand the boundaries of our usual notions of a course in manual training. And what I am saying has reference chiefly to the grades, though it operates also in the higher reaches of schoolwork.

2. It will make clear why it is better and more helpful in the early school years of children to cultivate responses to those demands upon us that look toward natural and real work than to waste time and introduce difficulties by passing over into the field of the imaginary. It says in plain terms that learning to mow a lawn or plant a tree, to play tennis or drive a horse, to build a fence or cook a meal, is a more natural demand for organized behavior than learning to manufacture cornucopias out of cardboard or to make a never-to-be-used corner bracket out of wood. In the former the action demanded is an adjustment to external and variable stimulations, keeping consciousness keyed up and hence giving evidence every moment that the thought circuit is complete.

Mind has no significance save as a guide to behavior. If there were nothing to do, learning and teaching would be useless. Hence it follows that all learning in its final analysis can justify itself only when it clearly establishes its right to exist as a necessary help to worthy behavior. Ability to react wisely and well is always based on adjustments between power to understand and power to perform.

The world of today with its myriad of transformations sets the standards; we cannot escape it if we would. Man must be more widely and clearly adjusted to the work he is now called to perform. And there is no royal road to this sort of adjustment. Mind and body can grow and develop into harmonious and useful relationship only thru action and reaction. The only way to organize motor and sensory is by doing things under the guidance of conscious intention, and correcting our understanding thru the consequent enrichment of experience.

The normal education of every child has taken this path from the beginning. Day by day, year by year, and century by century, children have been showing forth the needs of their lives by doing their best to exhibit the fundamental and necessary unity between thinking and doing. Despite this, schoolwork is still unnatural and largely artificial. And some of our manual-training work is the most artificial of all. Physical organization for worthy purpose is emotional training for worthy behavior; ability to do things well and beautifully is a fundamental condition for the satisfying feelings of capability and artistic power. He who does not know how to do, and cannot image thru the experience of having done many things, cannot enter into the spirit of humanity and appreciate how the people think and feel toward the duties it falls to their lots to perform.

In the second place, manual training is emotional training. By this statement I do not wish to narrow the discussion to that phase of the work where especial emphasis is placed on the making of some beautiful form or combination of forms. This is important, but I wish here to call attention to a deeper and a more serious problem. I believe it is pretty thoroly settled that emotion is the resulting state of consciousness growing out of present muscular activities or tensions, or the memory of the feeling resulting from like activities and tensions referred to the past. That is to say, our feelings are largely the outcome of possible muscular behavior which has been racially or individually established. Whenever, therefore, we enlarge thru manual training the sum of muscular adjustments possible to children or adults, we thereby directly affect their emotional lives. When these activities are directed along useful and liberal lines, the emotions are thereby broadened and deepened to greater responses in corresponding directions. If this be true, and the burden of evidence favors it, do you not see then that inability to adjust one's muscular nature to the objective and subjective demands of life in a many-sided way, would of necessity operate to limit the emotional life to its minimum, and this minimum would consist almost entirely of the emotions arising from instinctive and reflex behavior?

This minimum would not only lack the refinements of modern enlarged power and capability, but it would smack too largely and exclusively of those primitive protective adjustments begotten under the demands of an inferior social order. Richness of emotional life can never come to a specialist whose broader preparation does not include many-sided physical capability and