private enterprise provide such opportunity at the expense of the pupils, as in the case of many excellent commercial schools? Shall the industries themselves establish schools for the training of their workmen? Shall philanthropic institutions support, wholly or in part, classes for instruction in industrial subjects?

It is certain that experiments will be made by each of these agencies. The Y. M. C. A. is already doing excellent work in the line of vocational training. Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip, vice-president of the National City Bank, of New York, and one of the managers of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, says:

With proper financial backing no organization is better fitted to meet the great demand for industrial education in New England than the Y. M. C. A.

In this connection it is interesting to note that, in the Association Evening Schools of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, the receipts from tuition fees have increased more rapidly than the expenses of the classwork and that they will equal each other next year if the same rates of increase continue. This indicates that working-men want industrial education and that industrial education is worth to the workman all that it costs.

As an illustration of the method of establishing special schools with state aid, I will outline, in the briefest way, what has recently been done by the state of Massachusetts. In June, 1905, Governor Douglas appointed a Commission on Industrial and Technical Education, consisting of eight members with the Honorable Carroll D. Wright as chairman. Their findings and recommendations are embodied in a report dated April, 1906. So numerous were the calls for this report that it was necessary to print the second edition. It was one of two books recommended to the Eastern Manual Training Association and the Eastern Art Teachers' Association, at their convention last year, by Mr. John Cotton Dana, librarian of the Newark Public Library, and it is now being reprinted and offered for sale by the Publication Board of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.

Following the recommendations of this first commission, a second and permanent commission was appointed by Governor Guild under the chairmanship of Professor Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University. Work was begun last September and broad definition was given to the policies which are to serve as guides in establishing local industrial schools. Among others, the policy of granting state aid was adopted and any city or town establishing an industrial school may receive a subsidy amounting to from one-fifth to one-half of the total expense of the school. Already two or three towns have taken definite action toward the establishment of such schools. The permanent commission recently submitted a report under date of March, 1907.

But the National Education Association is primarily an association of teachers and we are mainly interested in problems pertaining especially to the schools. It was with the hope of determining to what extent the present publicschool system might be made to serve the needs of industrial education that

today's program was planned with the general topic, "The Relation of Industrial Education to Public Instruction."

There are some of us who feel that the scope of public instruction should be broad enough to include a considerable amount of training with real vocational purpose. We believe that training for the industries is bound to come. We note the suspicion of organized labor and feel that there may be reasonable ground for such suspicion if the working-out of the problem is to be left entirely to industrial corporations, for there is a possibility that, in this event, the least desirable features of present industrial methods may be carried over into the schools. We realize that the public schools have ever changed with the growing needs of society and that subject after subject has been added to the early curriculum as each has been brought by changing conditions into the list of essentials. We even feel that our schools are on trial and that they must help in the solution of this problem if they are to maintain their place in the esteem of the people at large, as an important factor in our national existence.

Manual training was originally urged for vocational purposes but it has come so largely under the influence of the academic spirit of the schools that it is frequently given place solely on account of its cultural value. Cultural value it has of a high order; but is it not possible to conserve this feature and add something of the vocational purpose?

I. MANUAL TRAINING VERSUS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL

B. W. JOHNSON, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, SEATTLE, WASH. The situation in regard to industrial education and the conditions which are now demanding that educators give the problem their immediate attention, have already been clearly stated.

My topic, fortunately, limits this paper to a consideration of the high school and its relations to this situation.

The charge has been made that manual training, the one subject more closely related to industry than any other in the curriculum, is administered as "a sort of mustard relish, an appetizer conducted without reference to an industrial end." There is doubtless much truth in this statement of the position of manual training in the service of education. But the term "education" is used with different meaning by different classes of individuals according to the needs it is supposed to supply. The manufacturer and the merchant want skilled help; the school teacher holds up the cultural ideal of knowledge acquired; while society is calling for men and women who blend these attainments into an efficiency for service to self and to others.

Education is a systematized means for aiding the individual to live successfully, and to live successfully he must co-operate with his fellows. He must be equipped with skill in some calling and possessed of intelligence to direct this skill for service to himself and to others. He must, therefore, be able to

appreciate the efforts of others and feel an obligation to contribute his share. to the common good.

The report of the Massachusetts Committee on Industrial Education brings out very clearly that the boy and girl are of little account to industry until the age of sixteen, and that those children who enter some vocation earlier than this never advance beyond the unskilled class and that as men and women they are deficient, not so much in manual skill as in industrial intelligence, that power to see beyond the task which occupies the hand for the moment, to the operations which have preceded and to those which will follow it—power to take in the whole process, knowledge of materials, ideas of cost, ideas of organizations, business sense, and a conscience that recognizes obligations. Such intelligence is always discontented not with its conditions but with its own limitations, and is wise enough to see that the more it has to give the more it will receive.

Quoting again from this same report,

The development of policy in the industrial world and the experience of educators shows that the productive power of the child before fourteen is negative, and that it has not the power to handle anything but the simplest processes in the simplest and smallest way; that from fourteen to sixteen he is of productive power only for the large processes of manufacture or for errand work; but that the child in those years, by teaching, may gain the principles of industrial work, which may be put into practice after sixteen; that, therefore, the training before fourteen should be in the simplest practical lines only; that between fourteen and sixteen it should combine the practical training in specific industries with academic work as applied to the industrial problems, to develop intelligence and responsibility.

It is quite evident then the limitations imposed upon any scheme of education are those placed there by the social conditions the individual to be educated is later to occupy, by the laws of growth and development of the individual, and further by the means available to supply the right conditions for this growth.

It is the belief of the writer that the high school is the very place to begin and to a large extent carry out this industrial education now demanded, by giving the manual training a larger service in content and in form to meet the new conditions. Public education, should have but one aim, and that a democratic one, conserving a democratic spirit and ideal in the coming generation. To have two systems of schools, one for culture and the other for vocation or industry, seems inconsistent with our American ideals.

Dr. DeGarmo states in his Principles of Secondary Education:

The meaning of democracy is that every child shall have both incentive and opportunity to carry his educational development as far as his ability and circumstances will warrant, and in such direction as his taste, capacity, and situation in life may make desirable. For in education what is best for the individual is also best for society. Democracy, therefore, instinctively so adjusts its secondary to its primary schools that every child, whatever his social status, shall find the transition from elementary to secondary education both natural and easy. In form at least the American organization of schools provides opportunity for the continuous mental development of every citizen; for not only do all primary schools empty into the secondary, but the secondary likewise lead to the higher.

In the service each individual is to render to his fellows-society-all

callings, and they should all have equal honor, may be roughly grouped into four classes: the professional, commercial, productive, and domestic. As pointed out by the Massachusetts Commission, the first, the professional, and the one that led to the devising of a scheme of education, is abundantly provided for in our English and Latin high schools and universities; the commercial, in business education, in commercial courses in high schools, and in private business colleges. But those occupations engaged in production are found only touched educationally in the most advanced and scientific forms in the college and university.

Society is now very complex. Industry is highly diversified. The schools must also be diversified, to meet this situation and give equal opportunity to the future industrial worker to learn the principles and methods of a vocation, as they have given to the doctor, lawyer, and engineer. Tho many of these callings are best taught in the college or university, yet they all have fundamental principles that should be given in our high schools.

The question is largely one of means for no one doubts that these activities should have a place in our educational scheme. But we must remember that nature, in fixing the laws of growth and development of the child has, in so far as we understand that law, determined when and how such instruction can best be given to the child.

My argument is that the law of educational development prohibits specialization below the high school, and allows but little until after the second year of the high school; that the first years of the high school must open to the pupil the industrial field in a broad way; that special vocational training should be offered, in the last two years; that the easiest adjustment can be made thru the manual-training course or the manual-training high school; that manual training rightly understood by its friends may comprehend the meaning of industrial education, and rightly taught from this point of view, would give the foundation for an industrial intelligence that later specialization could build upon; and lastly this plan would greatly aid in keeping the educational path leading toward higher knowledge and efficiency, always open.

The statement attributed to a Jesuit priest, "Give me the boy before he is seven and I care not what you do with him afterwards," has been proven a fallacy, and the age from fourteen to eighteen or nineteen is now considered the crucial time when reason and judgment begin to sway the will.

Our high-school pupils enter as boys and girls and leave the school as men and women capable of performing all the functions of adult life. The lessons of this adolescent period all teach us that no period of life is so important. The changes, physical, mental, and moral, call for thoughtful consideration. The boy and girl are now very different from what they were in the grammar school. The youth is gaining a mastery over himself and may develop skill in muscular control. His mind is now awakened by the significance of events. He begins to realize the relatedness of phenomena that heretofore existed for him as isolated facts. Science and history are new subjects that he finds

fields of vast interest opening for his growing imagination. The facts and forces of industry and their dependence upon science can be made clear to the boy. Instead of giving close attention to one form of vocation, its theory and practice, an analysis should be attempted of the basal principles that underlie the practice in all the arts, that a broad view, and as much experience as possible may be given the youth at this age.

This period of discovery of self and the interests that are awakened by excursions into many fields of knowledge, must be kept free from the narrowing influence of prescription. There must be a wide range of elective study. In our American high school the boys and girls, from every walk in life, are gathered and they in turn pass out of the school to possibly a greater diversity of life in the society of the immediate future. The range of future activity for these boys and girls is limited only by their diversity of interest and hereditary training. The leaders in all professions and vocations must get their secondary education in the same school. This diversity of talent and aim cannot be given the education needed in the narrow limits of a few subjects. The activities of life and its pulsating interests must be brought to the service of the school and energize its forces for attracting and retaining our youth for the larger efficiency of industrial life.

With our elective system in a city high school it will not be difficult to arrange for those pupils who desire it specific instruction in some of the leading vocations, or those of greatest local need, in the last year or two of the course. This is nothing new, as it is now practiced in a number of schools. Superintendent L. D. Harvey, at Menomonie, finds it is practical, and is meeting with marked success in increased attendance and interest. This plan has advantages in organization in cities having more than one high school. In Seattle the new high school will have complete equipment for manual training for the first two years for boys and girls. At the end of the two years those pupils, electing this work and wishing to specialize along some particular line will attend the central high school, where complete equipment will make it possible to carry out any line of vocation work the needs of that community. require. As many students drop out of school the last two years, that makes it possible to combine small classes in similar subjects in the central school, and as this line of work usually requires the most expensive equipment, economy is practiced in fitting up the one school for advanced work.

Manual training is no longer limited to the narrow view of a cultural or disciplinary subject. It has a rich content of its own tho none the less cultural and disciplinary while serving a larger end in education.

Manual training has undergone an evolution in method and matter as well as in its relations to the other school subjects and to industry. There are four steps or divisions in the development of this subject as an educational means: (1) tool process or technique; (2) tool process or technique in making something of utility; (3) technique and utility with the opportunity for the