be unavoidably ruined, is a charming instance | ism, or whether it was from feeling himself of the puff indirect. It was at Montmorenci that he wrote his well-known letter to D'Alembert, on the subject of theatres. In the article 'Geneva' in the Encyclopédie,' D'Alembert had proposed the erection of a theatre in that city, and Rousseau in his letter, consistently with his former attack on the arts and sciences, violently opposed the proposition. The vulgar prejudices against the profession of an actor he fostered with great ardor: indeed it was his constant tendency to repose upon popular prejudices, when they suited his purpose he made use of the ordinary commonplaces against theatres generally, and he brought forward several financial and other considerations to oppose the erection of a Genevese theatre in particular. The inhabitants of Geneva were poor, and being hardworked, they had but little spare time on their hands, and therefore theatres, which might serve to keep an idle population like that of Paris out of mischief, could only exist among them as an expensive hinderance to business. The theatre, too, he thought, might interfere with sundry little pleasant parties called cercles, where the male citizens of Geneva were wont to congregate together, to drink hard, to smoke, and to indulge in jokes, not of the most savory character. These merry réunions, where the liquor passed freely, and the coarse jest caused a roar, found a vehement champion in Jean Jacques. The whole morality of Geneva seemed to rest on this basis, and a revolution that would have converted the Genevese from low sots into the spectators of Molière's comedies, was contemplated with positive horror by their fellow-citizen. Still advocating the rude at the expense of the polished, Rousseau, while censuring theatres, now stood up the professed defender of the pipe and pot. It appears that the battle he fought was hardly worth the trouble it cost. Voltaire, who, by his theatre in the vicinity of the city, had attracted many of the residents, had hoped to found one in the city itself, and D'Alembert's article in the 'Encyclopédie,' written under his dictation, had been intended as a 'feeler.' Rousseau's letter operated so far that it destroyed these hopes, and involved him in a quarrel with the philosophe of Ferney; but when afterwards theatricals were actually introduced in Geneva, it was found that the citizens had so little taste for them, that a permanent existence could not be secured. Thus Rousseau in his letter was fighting against a supposed evil, which left to itself would have perished naturally. Whether it was from a feeling of patriot not a strong man, Rousseau always tried to have a numerous party on his side: it had been his constant aim to flatter the republic of Geneva. The adulation was dealt out in a most liberal measure in the dedication of the Discourse on Inequality'-the moral worth of the Genevese was valued at a high rate, when he expressed such dread at their corruption by the introduction of a theatre, -he puffed the pipe of peace with his compatriots while eulogizing the cercles, and if he did go so far as to admit that the Genevese women, when assembled in a knot together, talked scandal about their own husbands, he added that it was much better to do so, than to indulge in the same vein when any of the male sex were in the room. Pastors, citizens, ladies, pipe, pot, and scandal, all was virtuous at Geneva. Nay, more virtuous was it to get drunk, and talk ribaldry at Geneva, than to keep sober, and study mathematics at Paris. Unfortunately, this love for his country (let us believe it really was love) was not returned in a spirit of kindness; and the little amiable prejudices which he had been at such pains to exalt, re-acted against their defender in a frightful manner. In the present times, the anniversary of Rousseau's birthday is a great occasion at Geneva; but it was a very different matter when he was alive. We all know how the seven cities, through which the living Homer begged his bread, contended, after his decease, for the honor of his birth. Rousseau's case was still harder, for he was obliged to endure a severe persecution: no longer a shadowy, unreal persecution, invented by himself in his morbid mcments, but a substantial storm, which beat him about, from point to point, most relentlessly. By the publication of his Emile,' this storm was occasioned. Emile' is unquestionably the greatest of all Rousseau's works. The thoughts which lie scattered elsewhere, the opinions which he had previously uttered in a crude form, are here carefully digested, and arranged into a systematic work. For the weaknesses and vanities of Rousseau, we must turn to his early essays, to his Confessions,' to his Heloïse but for his theoretic views, for those utterances that have weight in themselves, and are not merely curious, as expositions of acharacter, we must go to the Contrât Sociale' and 'Emile.' The former contains the theory of the citizen-the rights belonging to the free member of a free state, subject to nought but that universal will of the state, in which he himself has a share: the rights which are inherent in him because he is a man, and which he has himself lim ited by becoming a party to a social com- utter contempt; fables, in which beasts and pact. The latter contains the theory of the birds hold converse, he opposes strenuously man the natural man, apart from his con- as means of conveying instruction in childnexion with any state whatever. Rousseau hood, protesting that they only serve to give gives himself an imaginary pupil, whom he false impressions, and that La Fontaine, in calls Emile,' and educates him from the his time the favorite author for children, moment of his birth to the time when he is is neither adapted to them by his language, married and may be supposed to acquire a nor by his moral. Our own Cowper, in a political existence. The savage life which fit of small wit, chose to ridicule this notion Rousseau eulogized at the expense even of of Rousseau's, and wrote a miserable fable the most perfect republic, finds its represent- himself to show his contempt for the doctrine, ative in the young Emile: only it is much soft- but he simply showed that he did not unened down since first it was so violently advo- derstand the man whom he condemned. As cated. Then the inhabitant of the woods and it was Rousseau's principle of education to mountains, born under no government, hav- inspire a series of wants, and to communiing no property, and conscious of no law, was cate nothing that the child himself did not the object of admiration; now it is to the man, desire, it was necessary that words corresborn under a modern government, but ponding to no notions at all should be proat the period of his life when he also has no hibited: and more necessary to exclude property, and is conscious of no law, that those to which wrong notions were attached. Rousseau directs his attention. The book A word in a child's mouth should only, in 'Emile' is a system of education: but what this system, serve to mention something he is that system? It is the system of letting cared about; and therefore he could have nature perform the greatest part of the work, no use for words, the meanings of which and as the savage is instructed by her voice, were out of his mental reach, nor for figuso causing the child to be instructed also. rative expressions, which could only tend Only the plan is modified to a certain extent, to confuse his view of the relation between because Emile is to be educated into com- names and things. Emile' is a well weighed, plications which the savage can never know, carefully written book; the remarks on the and hence, though his path is originally that disposition of children are founded on the of nature, he has such is the world-to be acutest observation; and he who heedlessly led to civilization as a goal; a civilization, attacks an isolated part, is likely to find which, be it understood, does not make him he has chosen an adversary, his superior in so completely blend with his fellows, as to strength.* The plan of hindering Emile lose his identity, but allows him still to re- from learning when a child, and confining tain a substance of his own which can ex- his earliest years to bodily exercises, and a ist apart from society. It is by feeling few rude notions of the laws of property, is not, wants, that the savage learns the use of his however, merely adapted to prevent him from several faculties, but his wants are few being a precocious savant. He is not to be and simple: it is by surrounding Emile a savant at any period of his life, for Rouswith wants of a more artificial kind, that his seau, still adhering to the side he took years training is accomplished. The preceptor's before, continues to hold that character in entire occupation is to watch over this Emile; contempt. In due time the pupil learns somehis influence is unfelt by his pupil, as he thing of the classics, and of modern lanteaches him no precept, sets him no task; guages, but he is to consider these as mere but he is constantly preparing such an at- trivial accomplishments, and is early taught to mosphere, that the pupil must infallibly guide think that the mechanic who pursues an himself to the desired point. So far is the useful calling is higher than a philosopher education natural, that the pupil is merely led or a poet. Though supposed to be rich, he on by the desire of supplying his own wants; is nevertheless to be independent of the freaks so far is it artificial, that these wants are arti- of fortune; and he learns the trade of a ficially awakened. What is called learning joiner, is regularly bound apprentice, that in is deferred to an age comparatively mature, all circumstances he may obtain a livelihood. when the boy can be made to feel uneasy at Thus he becomes Rousseau's ideal of a man ; the want of it; but all crowding of a child's a man depending on no society, but capable mind with words, the notions attached to of mixing in any; the man believed in at the which he cannot possibly understand, are ex- time of the Revolution, which Rousseau pressly prohibited. Precocious displays of erudition, such as the knowledge of geogra*From these commendations we except, as a phy and history, long recitations of poetry separate work, the Professions of the Vicaire of Saby children, Rousseau treats with the most voy.' foresaw, and which so shortly followed; and | and he vainly sought shelter in several places whatever we may think of the means adopt-in Switzerland. His Letters from the ed to cultivate this ideal, certainly the Mountain,' which he wrote as a sort of dethought itself was a great one. By the fence to the objectionable part of his 'Emile,' side of Emile,' the ideal man, strong of limb, only served to increase the violence of his firm in his independence, stamped with all enemies. Great polemic talent is exhibited the nobility of nature, is placed the ideal in these 'letters.' If he cannot refute the woman,' whom Rousseau calls Sophie. In danger against himself, he shows the nicest treating of her, he appears as the strenuous skill in placing his adversaries in a false pcopponent of the rights-of-woman' sort of sition. With dexterity availing himself of an thinkers, who consider women capable of argument long in vogue among the Catholics, performing all the political offices of a man, he dares his Genevese opponents, who as and as unjustly kept in a state of subjection. Protestants found their faith on the right of He objects even to the influence which ladies private judgment, consistently to prevent his had already obtained in the fashionable circles interpreting the Scriptures his own way. of Paris; he objects to their presiding over Then leaving the abstract theological ground, society; to their giving opinions on matters he attacks on constitutional principles the acts of philosophy and literature; teaching that of the Genevese council, which was the exedomestic life is the proper sphere of woman, cutive power, and was composed of the arisand that the secondary position assigned to tocratic portion of the republic. In revenge her, is the result not of prejudice, but of the for his persecution, he shows how that counnatural order of things. When Rousseau cil has exceeded the limits prescribed by the thinks calmly, there is nothing of what may constitution, how it has encroached on other be called the socialist' in his composition. members of the state: and to the arguments Politically he is an ultra-revolutionist, but which he used on this occasion are to be aswith regard to social laws he is strictly con- cribed the revolutions in favor of a more servative. popular form of government, which afterwards happened in Geneva. At the time, the position he took drew upon him little else than persecution, and if he occasionally found an asylum, he was soon obliged to leave it to avoid personal risk. The ignorant populace, excited by their pastors, believed him to be Anti-Christ; and he with that perverse love of notoriety which ever distinguished him, chose to walk out in an Armenian costume, and thus in a measure to support the opinion of the bigoted Swiss, that he was at any rate something not quite right. From this persecution, which he says put him in peril of being stoned to death, but which some believe he greatly exaggerated, he took refuge by his journey to England, in company with David Hume. With his departure from Switzerland on this occasion, ends the book of 'Confessions.' The cause of the storm that was created on the publication of 'Emile' was the 'Profession of Faith of the Vicaire of Savoy' which appears as a mere episode of the work. This insidious profession' is remarkable for its display of natural piety. The declarations of faith in a supreme Being, and in the immortality of the soul, are made with the greatest appearance of devoutness; but while the doctrine of a future state is 'proved' by arguments singularly unconvincing, the groundwork of every positive religion is assailed with remarkable tact and acuteness. The evidence by miracles,-in short any sort of evidence that would make of Christianity any thing but a mere system of morality, is assiduously controverted; and though the doctrines of Rousseau are such as in the present time might obtain him no severer name than that of a rationalist,' he was in Over the rest of his life, in which we have his day, a complete infidel as far as regarded no longer his own voice to guide us, we may any established creed. The Catholics of pass very briefly. England did not suit him: course did not like him: the Calvinistic there was no chance in this island of a shout Genevese, whom he had vainly tried to flat- of 'Anti-Christ,' nor of his windows being ter by a few compliments in this very 'pro- demolished with brickbats: but what was fession,' joined in the abhorrence and last-worse, people did not seem to care much ly the material philosophes, disgusted at his advocacy of a future state, loved him no better than the orthodox. The tempest broke out in more places than one, the parliament of Paris threatened him with imprisonment, the council of Geneva caused his book to be burned by the hands of the executioner. From Montmorenci he was obliged to fly, about him. His life was in perfect safety, but he found himself an object of ridicule. He quarrelled with his friend Hume, and with this country altogether; and returned once more to France, where his fame having become established, he was received in the most flattering manner. At Paris his eccentricities took the form of madness; he lived a prey to the most frightful mental anguish; ant from his imaginary misfortunes. Pygmahe even seemed to luxuriate in his own hor-lion-and Jean Jacques wrote a Pygmalion rors, and loved to repeat a stanza of Tasso* |-created an ideal, saw it realized, and was which reminded him of his own situation. blessed: Rousseau erected likewise an ideal, His face was so distorted by convulsions, that but he saw the impossibility of its realization those who had been familiar with his coun- in the world, he gnashed his teeth at actualitenance could reconcile it no more. On ties, and sunk into despair and madness. the 3rd of July, 1778, he died suddenly, at the chateau of a friend at Ermonville,-not without suspicion of suicide. 6 FAREWELL TO THE FLOWERS. mise; "FAREWELL! farewell! bright children of the sun, We us, There is something sublimely tragic in this last madness of Rousseau. The man could not at last find any thing really to love in this world it was a something to him mysterious and unholy, and he peopled it with awful phantoms. He uttered his imprecations against it: but he was not a strong man, he could not weather the storm, and the curses, like young chickens, returned home to roost.' Probably he at first assumed misanthropy in a kind of morbid freak, and declared himself the enemy of civilization for the sake of supporting a paradox: but he nurtured this position till it became more and more a real thing -to himself terribly real. To separate the acted from the true is, as we have said, difficult to the reader of the Confessions;' but we must have faith in the sincerity of that ma-Ye will return again, to cheer the bosoms niac misanthropy of which we hear so little, With the fresh fragrance of your opening blossoms; Of the deep valleys, by old woods o'erhung, and which came after the period we have at-To be the joy and treasure of the young; tentively examined. With birds, from the far lands and sunny hours, Ye will return, sweet flowers! In spite of the weakness of the Man, the strength of the Word was felt. The young, the enthusiastic, the dreamers of the last century, followed the dictates of Rousseau, and his words became the gospel of revolutionists. If his nature was not quite natural, it was natural enough to move those who had only gazed at the mere artificial. Truly it is a great sight to see this Rousseau, this creature of feeble purpose, constructing what he believed to be the natural man out of such strange materials as society presented him, and out of such a weak self. The man of his imagination grew to maturity in the Emile,' and there is no doubt he was as dear a companion to his preceptor as if he had been a reality. He would have married his idol by a projected work, called 'Emile and Sophie: a work of which only a few chapters were written, and which promised to be one of immense power: but the ideal man was to have risen triumph "Vivro fra i mei tormentl, e fra le cure, Of Spring will wake ye from your wintry sleep, You will return again; the early beams sweep; May fall on deserts or on graves in vain ; Its perished bloom once more? In vain, in vain, years come and years depart; Return, but not Life's flowers!" Thus sung AMERICAN NOTIONS OF ENGLISH PARLIA- 66 From the Spectator. We have formerly pointed to the lessons which may be gathered from the strictures of intelligent foreigners, as in the case of French censors of our ways. We have now a good lesson to impart from an opposite quarter. The DEMOCRATIC REVIEW, which reaches us as regularly from New York as our own magazines, opens its September number with a paper on English Parliamentary Bribery," which will be read with peculiar interest on this side of the Atlantic. It begins with citing the case of the Duke of LEEDS, whose tenantry, on the descent of the title and estates to the heir, were required to change their politics; Mr. MURRAY'S sweeping charge against the Wigtonshire proprietors, of intimidation and oppression; and Mr. THOMAS DUNCOMBE's unreserved confession of corrupt bribery at Pontefract The modern kind of corruption is thought more demoralizing than the Rotten Borough system "The tenant who goes with his estate may resolve himself back into the days of feudal vassalage, and may invest the relations of a lord and vassal with the romance of chivalric dra pery." "He has not been bought himself, he has received no bribe, and has suffered no corruption; and he may reason himself into the belief, that not only do his private interests require that he should support the proprietor of the soil on which he lives, but that the loyalty which as a vassal he should feel, should reconcile him to a sacrifice of personal partialities. But the voter who comes to the hustings as independent, and when there sells his vote for as much as he can get for it, is in a condition below slavery." seeks for by the mere transfer of the exuberance of his income from his banker to his electionagent, to take the trouble of thought, to endeavor to cultivate the popularity which is obtained by the benevolent employment of great wealth or of superior intellect, would be an unprofitable waste of time and of energy. It is a melancholy truth, which every year confirms, that nothing tends so far to make men honest, as that it should be their interest to be so; and we believe that nothing has gone so far to preserve our own national legislature from the dangerous influences with which it is beset, as the constant regulating pressure of a constituency, the greatness of whose numbers and the secrecy of whose votes guard it from general corruption." The corruption of the constituency is seen reflected in the legislation; "the self-respect which is lost at the hustings is not regained in the House" "We are struck with seeing the increased reCurrence, during the last two Parliaments, of scenes which even when told in the courtly language of the Governmental reporter [Hansard], prove that the brute force which buys seats too often continues in operation when the seats have been bought. Every one knows the story form, could not be checked by the most solemn of the cat, who, though exalted to the human restraints from betraying her original propensities at the slightest temptations; and those which take place at the English hustingswho pay attention to the extraordinary scenes who observe the means taken to buy votes, and the exertion used to cajole voters--will not be surprised that the spirit which anima ted the candidate should animate the member. Of the more inarticulate noises made during the course of debate it is not necessary tive of the temper as well as of the demeanor to speak, notwithstanding that they are indicaof a good portion of the House; because it would be difficult, except on the Pythagorean basis, to trace back the catcalls, the crowings, the barkings, the shouts of talley ho, the imitations of most of the inferior sounds of nature, to any es It is feared" that the decomposing element, instead of being jealously watched and guard-tablished principles of interpretation.” ed, has been taken among the more unthinking of the English politicians as a necessary and just ingredient in public economy; and since the Reform Bill there has been a marked change in Parliamentary manage ment Then follow examples culled from all quarters-from Hansard, the Morning Post, GRANT's House of Commons, and the SpecROEBUCK's suggestion that Members attacktator of disorderly scenes; such as Mr. ed by the Times should horsewhip the suppos"The legislator, from the habit of employing ed proprietor, Mr. WALTER; an extraordinary largely the brute force of riches, has learned to tumult of interruption to put down a Memplace an undue and dangerous value upon aber whose name is not given-[was it Mr. lever which he may have persuaded himself is conservative and salutary in its bearing. The BLEWITT?]-barking, caterwauling, crowing, trouble of being virtuous, intelligent, and active, and so forth; the squabbles of the Law Lords; to quote a high authority, has been dispensed with just in proportion as intelligence, virtue, and activity, when unsupported by wealth, have lost their power. The most matchless abilities would fail to weigh a feather in the scale against a few thousand pounds to be spent in bribery, or a few more thousands to be invested in an estate. For a man who can obtain the seat he one of Lord BROUGHAM's hasty interpositions, and Lord MELBOURNE'S sarcastic remark that the Duke of WELLINGTON would not have taken such a course,-"The noble Duke is a gentleman and a man of honor." "The tone of the Upper House," says the reviewer, "is by no means improved by the |