curable disease must be amputated. Some recent tendencies by some well-meaning people are so naïve that one is tempted to call them childish; the conventions of society cannot be abandoned to alleviate the sufferings of criminals. To do so would be to act about as logically as it would be to abandon all medicine that leaves a bad taste in a patient's mouth. At the same time most lawyers might well remember that life is preferable to rules of health and that not a few of our laws are capable of becoming outgrown. Our penal laws are not as yet fully adapted to the new view. All our minor punishments are still retaliatory, which fact makes our prisons all too frequently breeding places of crime and vice, instead of what they ought to be, namely, moral hospitals. Perhaps a just test of any penal system is to be found in the quality of discharged convicts, and according to Mr. Eugene Smith, president of the Prison Association of New York it is a notorious fact that the most desperate class of criminals consists of discharged convicts.

PUNJAB, pun-jäb', or PANJAB (Persian, "Five Waters"), an extensive territory in the northwest of Hindustan, formerly under the dominion of the Sikhs, but in 1849 annexed to British India. It is so called from its position, being intersected by the five great rivers which unite to pour their waters into the Indus. In 1901 the northwestern part of the Punjab was separated to form a chief commissionership under the government of India (see NORTHWEST FRONTIER PROVINCE). The lieutenantgovernorship as thus limited is bounded on the east by Kashmir, Tibet, and the river Jamna; on the south by Sind and Rajputana, the river Sutlej being in part a boundary river; on the west by Baluchistan and Northwest Frontier Province; on the north by the Northwest Frontier Province. For administrative purposes it is divided into divisions (Jalandhar, Lahore and Rawal Pindee). Lahore is the capital, while Amritsar, the sacred city of the Sikhs, is the next largest city, since Delhi has been detached. Simla, the mountain capital, is within the province, and is the residence of the viceroy during the hot season. Murree is the summer headquarters of the military command. The total area of the province is about 95,000 square miles, with a population of about 19,974,956. The area of the Native States is 38,299, with a population of about 4,250,000.

General Description. The province of the Punjab is a triangular tract of land between the Sutlej and the Indus, and, with the exception of the hill country on the slopes of the Himalayas, it is a great alluvial plain. On the northeast side is the margin of the Himalayas, on which there are beautiful sanitaria, or hill stations Simla (the mountain capital of India), Dagshai, Sabathu, Kassauli, Dharmsala, Dalhousie and Murree, the military headquarters of the province. The country between Jhelam and the Indus is known as the salt range, as it contains inexhaustible mines of rock salt which have been worked for many centuries. It is abundantly irrigated by six rivers. These rivers (proceeding from west to east) are the Indus, the Jhelam (ancient Hydaspes), Chenab (ancient Acesines), the Ravi (ancient Hydraotes), the Beas (ancient Hyphasis) and the Sutlej (ancient Hesudrus).

The Jhelam and Chenab unite their waters, and then are joined by the Ravi; the united stream is then augmented by the Sutlej, which has previously received the Beas. The combined waters of these rivers form the Panjnad, which joins the Indus near Mithankot. The rivers of the Punjb divide it into five districts, or doabs (countries between two rivers): namely, the Sind-Sagar Doab, between the Indus and Jhelam; the Jech Doab, between the Jhelam and Chenab; the Rechna Doab, between the Chenab and Ravi; the Bari or Manja Doab, between the Ravi and Beas; and the Jallandar Doab, between the Beas and Sutlej. Of these the first is by far the largest, but also the most sterile and least inhabited, abounding with bare eminences and rugged declivities, interspersed here and there with rich and fertile valleys. The second is mostly level, and has been described as "a sterile waste of underwood," the abode of shepherds, and scantily irrigated; the Rechna Doab is bare and neglected, though susceptible of high cultivation; the Bari Doab, though bare, has a large surface under cultivation, and is the most populous and important of all, containing the large towns of Amritsar, Multan and Lahore; while the Jallandar Doab is highly cultivated, well peopled and excelled in climate and productions by no province in India. Speaking generally, the plains east of Lahore are the most fertile, wealthy and populous of the province, and the granary of the Punjab; while those on the west present a striking contrast. The soil of the level country varies remarkably from stiff clay and loam to sand, mixed with each other in variable proportions, and with vegetable matter; besides which, carbonate and sulphate of soda are sometimes mixed with it in such quantities as to render the land almost worthless. The mineral wealth of the Punjab is almost confined to its rich deposits of rock salt. The climate is hot and dry, and little rain falls, except in the higher country and under the influence of the southwest monsoon. The part of the province to the east of Lahore can be cultivated in most seasons without irrigation, but owing to this its crops are much more likely to fail from a deficiency of rainfall than those of the western irrigated tracts. The summer heat is very great, and in the early part of January sharp frosts are common.

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Vegetation, Agriculture.— Wood is scarce, except upon the hills. In the west considerable areas are occupied by date-trees; and palms of other species, banyans and other trees are found here and there. The area under forests is over 4,250,000 acres. About 28,000,000 acres of the remainder are under cultivation, and over 20,000,000 acres more are available for cultivation. The principal grain crops wheat, barley, rice, buckwheat and millet, pease, vetches and mustard; sesamum and other oil seeds, turnips, carrots, onions, cucumbers and melons. Indigo and sugar are exported. The tobacco plant grows luxuriantly, especially about Multan, and opium has been grown somewhat extensively. About 8,750,000 acres are under wheat, and over 750,000 under rice. The total irrigated area exceeds 9,000,000 acres, of which more than half is irrigated by canals. Among the fruits are the date, orange, fig, vine, apple, mulberry, banana and mango.

The livestock includes sheep, cattle, horses and camels; buffaloes are common.

People. The population of the Punjab is composed of various races, the chief of which are the Jats, Rajputs and Pathans. The Jats form the bulk of the agricultural peasantry, and are tall and athletic, with handsome, open countenances, long beards and fine teeth. The people, generally, are in physical respects superior to those of Bengal. The native states subordinate to the Punjab government are 36 in number. Thirty-one are Hindu and five Mohammedan. The most important is Kashmir, the next Patiala. The Mohammedan state of Bahawalpur is the next followed in order by Kapurthala, Mandi, Sarmur, Faridkot and Malarkotla. The other states are insignificant in rank and consequence.

Religion. The religion of the Sikhs, which is the national religion of the Punjab, was founded by Nanak, who was born A. D. 1469. The Golden Temple at Amritsar is the centre of the faith and the guardian of the sacred book known as the Adi Granth (see SIKHS). The distribution of the population according to religious profession is almost wholly Mohammedan and Hindu, there being some Sikhs, and a sprinkling of other religions. The American Presbyterian Board of Missions has important stations at Lahore, Ludianah and Umballa. Lahore is the seat of both a Church of England bishop and a Roman Catholic bishop. The Mohammedans form a very large part of the population of the Rawal Pindee and Multan divisions. The Hindus predominate in the easterly divisions and in the mountainous district of Kangra. The Sikhs reside chiefly in the centre and east of the province and constitute the mass of the gentry. The few Buddhists of the Punjab are almost entirely confined to the small Spito district in the extreme northeast. The Pathans and Baluchis are the most numerous of the Punjab Mohammedans by race, but the Mohammedan strength consists largely in converted Hindus belonging to the Jat and Rajput tribes. The Hindu Jats form a large proportion of the population.

Language and Education.-The chief languages spoken in the Punjab are Punjabi (known as Gurmukhi), Hindi, Sindhi, Jataki, Kashmiri, Pushtu, Persian and English. Since the country came under British rule elementary education has received much attention. The total number of educational institutions in the Punjab is about 8,000, with a total of over a quarter of a million scholars. Of the higher educational institutions of the province the following may be mentioned: the Punjab University at Lahore; Lahore Government College; Oriental College; Saint Stephen's College, Delhi; Lahore Medical School; Saint Thomas College, Murree; the Khalsa College, Amritsar; Bishop Cotton School, Simla; and the Lawrence Military Asylum, Sanawar.

Manufactures and Trade. The manufacturing industry of the Punjab is chiefly confined to the larger towns. Amritsar, Lahore, Multan and Shujabad are distinguished for their silk and cotton fabrics, and the silks of Multan called kais, and chiefly used for scarfs, possess a strength of texture and brilliancy of color for which they are much prized in the Indian markets. The shawls of Lahore, too, rank only second to those of Kashmir, Bro

cades, tissues and carpets, resembling the Persian, are also manufactured in the capital. In the east of the Punjab white cotton goods are prepared of a stronger and more durable texture, as well as cheaper, than those of British manufacture. The Punjab enjoys from its position an extensive transit-trade. The imports comprise sugar, spices and other groceries, dye-stuffs and cottons, woolen and silk fabrics, metals and metallic utensils, cutlery, precious stones, ivory, glass and cochineal, asafoetida, safflower, fresh and dried fruits, wool, horses, etc. The exports-partly of home produce, partly in transit-comprise grain, ghee, hides, wool, silk and cotton fabrics, carpets and shawls, raw silk and cotton, indigo, tobacco, hardware, horses, etc.

Government and Revenue. The province is under a lieutenant-governor, assisted since 1897 by a legislative council of nine members. The most important item of revenue is the land-tax, which, on the average, yields a net revenue, after deducting charges, of nearly £2,000,000; besides there are excise duties on spirits and drugs, duties on stamps, etc. The financial condition is so favorable that there is often a clear surplus of revenue over expenditure of £2,500,000. About one-half of the whole cultivated area of the Punjab is tilled by owners, and about 1 per cent by tenants paying a nominal or no rent. Of the remaining area one-fifth is cultivated by occupancy tenants, and the rest is held by tenants-at-will, a class increasing in numbers from year to year. Rents vary from five annas to 40 rupees per acre, the average being about two and twothirds rupees. On about two-thirds of the land held by tenants-at-will the rent is wholly or partly paid in kind, and the average rent payable in kind is for the whole province about two-fifths of the produce. Nearly 5,000,000 acres are under mortgage.

Army and Police.- The Punjab forms a military district called "The Northern Command," under a lieutenant-general with headquarters at Rawal Pindee. The military authority of this officer extends to the Northwest Frontier Province. The military cantonments are Rawal Pindee, Peshawar, Noroshera, Abbottabad, Sialkor, Jhelum, Lahore, Jullundur, Sirhind, Umballa, Forozepore, Kohat, Bannu and Murdan under a lieutenant-general. The military force stationed in the Punjab in 1900 consisted altogether of 68,806 men. Of cavalry there were 11,893, of infantry 50,504, of artillery 6,120, with some engineers, etc. There were thus more troops in the Punjab than in any other division of India. The police force is stated to be in a most effective condition. It numbers about 20,000 men, divided into two divisions, the Trans-Sutlej and the Cis-Sutlej. Almost all the police are armed either with swords or guns. The Punjab has a chief court with five judges, two of whom are natives and four temporary judges.

History. The Punjab plays an important part in the history of Hindustan and British India. It was invaded in 327 B.C. by Alexander the Great, who defeated Porus at Mong in Gujerat and overran the whole country. In 1022 it was overrun by the troops of Mahmud of Ghazni, whose successors held the country for 170 years, making Lahore the seat of their government. In 1193 it passed by conquest into

the hands of Mohammed Ghori, and Delhi became the capital. After his death the country was ruled by a succession of turbulent chiefs, principally Afghans, till at length in 1526 Baber, the founder of the Mogul Empire, having obtained possession of the country, ascended the throne, and established a dynasty whose sway prevailed for about two centuries, during which the Sikhs were rising into importance. In 1738 Nadir Shah overran the Punjab, and in the following year he defeated the Mogul army at Karnal and sacked Delhi. The Sikhs were utterly defeated by the Afghan conqueror Ahmed Shah Durani in 1762, and the Moguls nominally ceded the Punjab to him. The Durani dynasty maintained its ascendency till the beginning of the 19th century, when the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh began their career of conquest. In 1818 this renowned chieftain stormed Multan and took Peshawar - in the following year conquering Kashmir and Derajat west of the Indus; and in 10 years he succeeded in establishing his power over the whole country. In 1839 Ranjit Singh died. His son Khorak

Singh quietly succeeded, but died of a decline a few months after his father, on which Shere Singh, a natural son of the great Ranjit, assumed the sovereignty, but was assassinated 15 Sept. 1843. Dhulip Singh, the reputed son of Ranjit Singh, succeeded his brother. This young prince was converted to Christianity and retired on a princely pension to England, where he died. But from the close of 1843 to the period of its annexation to British India the government was in abeyance, or, what is worse, in the hands of an ignorant, bloodthirsty, rapacious and insubordinate army. At length it became manifest that the Sikhs of the Punjab were preparing for an irruption into the territories protected by the British on the east of the Sutlej. In the end of December 1845, the Sikh forces passed the Sutlej into the territories protected by the British, with a most formidable train of artillery, but they found themselves completely worsted after the hard-fought actions of Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal and Sobraon. Lahore and other stations were afterward occupied by British troops: the Jallandar Doab, between the Sutlej and Beas, was permanently ceded to the British; and the province of Kashmir and the other provinces of the Himalayas were vested in the Rajah Gholab Singh. In 1849 a conspiracy between several disaffected chiefs and the Afgans resulted in further hostilities against the British, Multan being the centre of their operations. The indecisive battle of Chillianwalla was followed by the capture of Multan in January, and the victory of Gujerat in February 1849, since which period the former territories of the Sikhs have formed an integral part of the British Empire. The most important subsequent event in the history of the province was the Indian Mutiny, when the Sikhs were loyal to the British government, and the present Sikh regiments of the British native army form the most important section of the military strength of the empire, the Sikhs and the Gurkhas being esteemed by many critics the finest soldiers in the world. After the suppression of the mutiny the province was erected into a lieutenant-governorship under Sir John Lawrence, the distinguished statesman.

Bibliography. Consult Cunningham, 'Ar

chæological Survey of India, Vol. XIV (London 1882); Gore, 'Lights and Shades of Hill Life in the Afghan and Hindu Highlands of the Punjab' (London 1895); Latif, 'History of the Punjab from the Earliest Antiquity to the Present Time' (London 1896); Medlicott, 'Sketch of the Geology of the Punjab (Calcutta 1888); Prinsep, History of the Punjab'; Griffin, The Rajas of the Punjab' (2d ed., London_1872); Honigberger, Thirty-five Years in the East'; Edwards, A Year on the Punjab Frontier'; Clark, Thirty Years of Missionary Work in the Punjab'; 'Punjab Gazetteer (Calcutta).

PUNJABI LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Punjabi (also Panjabi from Persian Punjaubi-"Five Rivers") is an ancient Indian or Hindi dialect. Of a total population of about 26,000,000 inhabiting the Punjab (or Panjab) a large district in northwest India, some 18,000,000 to 19,000,000 speak Punjabi as their common vernacular; some 4,000,000 use Hindustani, the remainder speak the hill dialects; the Pahari o Hindustani is, however, employed in the law courts and officially in all intercourse with the natives. Punjabi has been enforced by many words borrowed from Persian and Arabic, and is, therefore, an Aryan language belonging to the central group. But the number of original Sanskrit words in its vocabulary (called tatsama) is small, especially when compared with Bengali and Uriya (two eastern forms of Hindi). Punjabi again has a number of dialects, fusing into one another, as is invariably the case with dialects throughout India. The main ones of these are Multani (in the south) which partakes both of Punjabi and Sindhi; next, Jathki (in the Centre) and ChibhaliDogeri (in the north). There are also several alphabets in use, the most ancient of which is Gurmukhi, derived from the Dervanagari alphabet, a Sanskrit form, though somewhat altered, omitting also a number of signs. The Gurmukhi is likewise in vogue among the Sikhs. Then there is the Lundi alphabet, used for commercial purposes. However, the British government adopted the Arabic character, as being the most convenient for the purpose. There is really no literature in Punjabi, with the single exception of the Sikh Granths. Parts of the Bible, though, have been translated into Multani and Chibhali-Dogeri. The Sikh Granths in Punjabi, or Adi Granth, are a compilation of the laws and precepts of the Khalsa, a peculiar sect whose holy city was Amritsar, founded by Manak. The Khalsa (lit., the Pure) aimed in their teaching partly for political, partly for religious reasons, at the brotherly amalgamation of Hindus and Moslems in the Punjab. For several centuries the Khalsa played a conspicuous rôle in that portion of India. This was more especially the case during the 17th century. Under British influence, however, the Khalsa gradually ceased to promulgate their doctrine. The Granths spoken of, show the Punjabi vernacular at its best. Consult Bhai Maya Singh, 'Punjabi Dictionary) (Lahore 1895); Bailey, Wm., 'Punjabi Grammar (ib. 1904); Grierson, Sir G. E., 'Linguistic Survey of India: Western Hindi and Punjabi (Vol. IX, part I, Calcutta 1908). WOLF VON SCHIERBRAND, America, Asia and the Pacific.'

Author of

PUNJNUD, or PANJNAD ("the five rivers"), a stream of the Punjab, formed by the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelam, whose waters it carries to the Indus (q.v.), about 490 miles from the sea near Mithankot. The Punjnud bounds Punjab and Bahawalpur in part of its course.

PUNKAH, a large swinging fan used in India and other hot countries for ventilating rooms. It consists of a movable frame of wood covered with canvas or the like and suspended from the ceiling. It is pulled backward and forward by means of a cord, and thus causes a movement of the air in the apartment.

PUNO, poo'nō, Peru, (1) town, capital of the department of Puno, on the west shore of Lake Titicaca, 12,870 feet above sea-level, and 90 miles east by south of Arequipa. It has two churches, a college and a hospital. A railway runs to Arequipa and to Mollendo on the Pacific. Pop. 6,000. (2) The department of Puno; area, about 41,198 square miles, is mountainous. The principal crops are potatoes and barley, but it is particularly distinguished by the extent of its pastures, cattle raising being the chief occupation. Its principal exports are the wool of the sheep, llama, alpaca and vicuña, and some cascarilla bark from the valley of Carabaya. Pop. about 540,000.

PUNSHON, William Morley, English Wesleyan Methodist clergyman: b. Doncaster, Yorkshire, 29 May 1824; d. London, 14 April 1881. He studied at the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in 1845 was received into the ranks of the ministry, his ordination occurring in 1849. He held charges in Newcastle-onTyne, Sheffield, Leeds, London and Bristol and became famous as a preacher. In 1868 he went to Canada where he worked assiduously to strengthen the position of the Methodist Church and he became widely known as a preacher and lecturer in both Canada and the United States. He was five times president of the Canadian Conference, and in 1873 he returned to England. He was elected president of the Conference in 1874 and in 1875 became one of the general secretaries of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. Author of 'Sabbath Chimes,' verse (1867); 'Sermons and Lectures (3 vols., 1882-84). Consult Macdonald, F. W., Life of William Morley Punshon (1887).

PUNT, poont, an ancient country on the Red Sea, whether in Asia or Africa is disputed. The country is mentioned a number of times in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and such records show that the Egyptians obtained from Punt ostrich feathers, leopard skins, gold, incense, ivory, precious woods and various ornaments. There are good reasons for locating Punt where is now Somali Coast and Abyssinia. Accounts are given of journeys to Punt, undertaken by command of monarchs. Queen Hatshepsut sent thither a whole fleet, and the account of the voyage, the persons and places seen in Punt were recorded on the walls of the temple of Deir el-Bahri. Consult Müller, Asien und Europa'; Naville, 'Deir el-Bahri'; Erman, 'Life in Ancient Egypt.'

PUNT, an oblong flat-bottomed boat used for fishing and shooting in shallow waters. The most common mode of propulsion is by pushing with a pole against the bottom of the river, or

stream, a process which is hence called punting. Also a similar boat used for racing on the Thames, England.

PUNTA ARENAS, poon'ta a-rā'näs (Sandy Point), Chile, port and capital city of the territory of Magellanes, at the extreme end of Patagonia (lat. 53° 10′ S.), and lying in a plain bounded by the rivers Las Minas on the north and La Mano on the south, with wooded hills back of the river. The city is a coaling station for steamers passing throught the Strait of Magellan, and as such has of late years risen to considerable importance. The surrounding country produces rye, barley, potatoes and other similiar crops and the timber exported to the Falkland Islands. The seal fisheries are considerable. The city has banks, stores, hotels and an opera-house. The site was made a penal colony in 1843 and the town was founded in 1849. Pop. about 20,000.

PUNXSUTAWNEY, Pa., city in Jefferson County, situated on Mahoning Creek and on the Pennsylvania and North Western, the Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh and the Buffalo and Susquehanna railroads, about 90 miles northeast of Pittsburgh. It is the business centre of a great bituminous coal and coke region and the headquarters of the second largest producers of bituminous coal and coke in the United States. There are also large iron furnaces and numerous smaller industries. It is also the centre of a rich agricultural territory. Punxsutawney affords exceptional advantage for manufacturers of iron and steel products, as the pig iron is manufactured here and the coke to smelt it is also produced here, a combination that makes for the lowest possible cost of production. The cheap natural gas available here has attracted large glass manufacturing plants, which are very successful. The prosperity of the city is reflected in the rapid growth of the three large banks serving the business interests of the community. Punxsutawney is an Indian name. It was organized into a borough in 1850. Its growth since 1890, when it had a population of 2,792, has been rapid. Its Chamber of Commerce is well organized and there is an active Business Men's Association. Greater Punxsutawney now has a population of 12,000.

PUPA, the name applied to the second stage in the metamorphosis of insects. In the typical complete or holometabolic insects, exemplified by beetles, the Lepidoptera, flies, etc., the pupa stage is marked by quiescence and rest, and thus presents a contrast to the preceding and active larval stage. During the pupa stage the elements of the larval form are being remodeled into that of the imago or perfect insect, which in due time emerges from the pupa case. An insect may remain in the pupa stage from a few hours or days to weeks, months or even years.

The pupa of the hemimetabolic insects, or those which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis (such as grasshoppers, locusts, bugs, etc.), are called nymphs and differ from the perfect insect, which they resemble in form, chiefly in the absence or rudimentary nature of the wings. These latter structures in the pupa state of hemimetabolic insects may generally be perceived to be in course of formation, the perfect insect or imago state being characterized simply by the full development of the wings. See CHRYSALIS; INSECTS; METAMORPHOSIS.

PUPIN, Michael Idvorsky, American scientist and inventor: b. Idvor, Hungary, 4 Oct. 1858. He came to America in 1874, was graduated at Columbia in 1883 and as the first American holder of the John Tyndall Fellowship of Columbia studied physics and mathematics at Cambridge University and under the famous von Helmholtz at the University of Berlin, there taking his degree of Ph.D. He returned to teach at Columbia, was appointed adjunct professor of mechanics there in 1892 and has been professor of electro-mechanics there since 1901. He is the inventor of long-distance telephony by means of self-inducting coils placed at intervals about the wire which preserving the vibrations and resonance transmits the sound a greater distance. Professor Pupin first announced the theory underlying his invention in March 1899, and brought his system to such perfection that in 1901 it was acquired by the Bell Telephone Company and by German telephone interests. He has perfected other valuable inventions in electrical-wave propagation, electrical resonance, in iron magnetization and in multiplex telegraphy. He was appointed director of the Phoenix Research Laboratories in 1911. In 1917 he presented to the United States government the use of his invention for eliminating static interference with wireless transmission. Appointed honorary consul-general in New York for Serbia, he was an active agent for that country during the World War, and organized for relief work a corps of Columbia students who served in Serbia in 1915. He has published "Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases, etc.

PUPPET-SHOWS, an amusement or entertainment popular in Europe. One of the most common classes of puppets is called, in French, marionnettes. These are images of the human figure moved by wires or cords on a stage and made to perform little dramas, the dialogue of which is carried on by the person in concealment, who moves the figures. In the common street performance in England of Punch and Judy (q.v.), however, the performer puts his fingers in the figures. Puppet-shows were common among the Greeks, from whom the Romans received them. Xenophon, Aristotle, Gellius, Horace and others mention them. Such exhibitions, which are so pleasing to children and the uneducated, naturally passed through various degrees of perfection in different ages and even now exhibitions of puppets are common in some countries which display great mechanical ingenuity. Clocks often display movable puppets and it is not infrequent in Germany to find on ancient townclocks puppets which move whenever the clock strikes. In 1674 there was a puppet opera at Paris, which met with great applause. They have been popular in many European cities, especially in Italy.

PURACÉ, poor-rä-sa', a volcano of the Andes in Colombia, 20 miles east of the town of Popyan. Eruptions have occurred several times; the town of Puracé at the base of the mountain was destroyed by the eruption of 1827; and the top of the volcano blown off and its height reduced to 15,420 feet by the eruption of 1849. It is still active and hot vapors issue constantly from the crater.

PURANAS, poo-ra'nąs. See SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

PURBECK (pèr'běk) BEDS, a series of geologic beds or strata consisting of limestones, clays, shales and sandstones, which in England form the uppermost member of the Jurassic system (q.v.). They are named after the Isle of Purbeck on the southeast coast of Dorsetshire, where they are exceptionally well developed and yield among other building stones a limestone, susceptible of a good polish, which is known as Purbeck marble. The "Isle" is in fact a peninsula 12 miles long by 7 miles broad, almost completely surrounded by sea. The Purbeck beds appear in a chalky ridge which traverses the island from west to east.

PURBECK, Isle of. See PURBECK BEDS.

PURCELL, pèr'sěl, Henry, English composer: b. London, 1658; d. 21 Nov. 1695. He was the son of a musician of the chapel-royal, who left him an orphan in his sixth year. He was admitted a chorister in the king's chapel, where he studied music under Choir-master afterward under Dr. Blow. In 1676, when only Cook and his successor, Pelham Humphrey, and 18, he was made organist of Westminster Abbey and six years afterward was appointed to fill the same office at the chapel-royal, Saint James. From this period his fame increased rapidly, his anthems and other church music being popular in all the cathedrals of the kingdom; nor were his compositions for the stage and music-room less successful. He composed music, religious and secular, with equal facility; and with respect to chamber music his compositions superseded all prior productions. Of his numerous works his 'Te Deum' and 'Jubilate' were composed for the celebration of Saint Cecilia's Day, 1694. Of his instrumental music a collection was published two years after his decease and comprised pieces in four parts, for two violins, tenor and bass. Many of his songs were published after his death under the title of Orpheus Britannicus. Ye Twice Ten Hundred Deities, contained in this collection, is considered the finest piece of recitative in the language; while his music in King Arthur' has maintained its popularity undiminished to our own day. In 1695, the year of his death, he set to music (Bonduca, an opera altered by Dryden from Beaumont and Fletcher; but his chief opera is 'Dido and Eneas' (1680). He was the author of a vast variety of catches, rounds, glees, etc., remarkable both for their melody and for their spirit, humor and originality. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. A splendid edition of his works is published by the Purcell Society, founded in 1878. An earlier edition of his sacred compositions is that of Novello (1829–32). Consult Cummings, 'Life of Henry Purcell (1882).

PURCELL, John Baptist, American Roman Catholic archbishop: b. Mallow, County Cork, Ireland, 26 Feb. 1800; d. Brown County, Ohio, 4 July 1883. He came to the United States in 1818, was educated at Mount Saint Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Md., received minor orders, and later studied at Saint Sulpician's College in Paris. He was ordained in 1826 and in 1827 appointed to the chair of philosophy in Saint Mary's College, of which he became president in 1828. In 1833 he was consecrated bishop of Cincinnati, and at once set about the im