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REEM REEVES

to the landing net. In baking, a cylinder with radial arms rotating in a heated chamber, carrying pans in which loaves of bread are placed for baking in the reel-oven. In cotton machinery, a machine on which cotton is wound, making hanks of thread. In domestic industry, a spool or bobbin of wood on which cotton, thread, silk, etc., is wound for use in sewing.

Also the name of a lively rustic dance in which the couples sometimes swing or whirl round, and sometimes pass, forming the figure 8. In the United States the Virginia reel was widely popular. Also the music for such dance, generally written in common time, but sometimes in jig time of six quavers to a bar. The Scotch dance known as a reel is executed by two couples, the music for which is generally written in common time of four crotchets in a bar, but sometimes in jig time of six quavers.

REEM, in Scriptural zoology, Bos primigenius. In the Authorized Version the influence of the Septuagint has prevailed, and the word is translated "unicorn," but erroneously, as the mention of two horns on one reem (Deut. xxxiii, 17) proves. The word unicorn has disappeared from the Revised Version, wild ox being substituted for it; but in Num. xxiii, 22, the alternative rendering ox-antelope (Oryx leucoryx) is given in the margin. The term is still a vernacular name among the Arabs of the Sahara for a gazelle (Gazella loderi).

RE-ENTRY, legal term designating the resuming or retaking possession of lands or tenements by the landlord in case of non-payment of rent or public dues. Usually a clause providing for re-entry in case of non-payment is inserted in the lease; and under this the landlord may enforce ejectment either through notification of his wish to re-enter or, if necessary, through process of law.

REES, rēs, Abraham, English Presbyterian clergyman: b. Llanbrynmair, Wales, 1743; d. 9 June 1825. He prepared for the ministry at Hoxton Academy, where in his 19th year he was appointed mathematical tutor to the institution, and soon after resident tutor, in which capacity he continued upward of 22 years. He was pastor to the Presbyterian congregation of Saint Thomas', Southwark, 1768-83, and of a congregation in the Old Jewry from 1783 till his death. In 1776 he undertook a revision and expansion of 'Chambers' Cyclopædia, which he completed in 1785. The success of this work led him to a new undertaking, similar in its nature, The New Cyclopædia, in 45 volumes (1802-20), republished at Philadelphia in 47 volumes.

REES, John Krom, American educator: b. New York, 27 Oct. 1851; d. there, 9 March 1907. He was graduated from Columbia in 1872 and from the Columbia School of Mines in 1875. He filled the position of assistant professor of mathematics in the Columbia School of Mines 1873-76, and was professor of astronomy in Washington University, Saint Louis, 1876-81. He was director of the observatory and instructor in geodesy and practical astronomy in Columbia 1881-84, and from 1884 professor of astronomy there. He was president of the New York Academy of Sciences in 189496, was elected Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society of London; and in 1901 received

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the decoration of Chevalier of the Legion of Honor.

REESE, res, Michael, American pioneer: b. Heinsforth, Bavaria, 1816; d. Germany, 2 Aug. 1878. Apprenticed to a tanner, he worked at his trade until he emigrated to the United States, and there after some reverses he established a jewelry business in which he was successful. In 1850 he went to California and began investing in San Francisco real estate. When the Fraser River excitement was at its height, Berri, a Swiss banker, disheartened as to the future of San Francisco, expressed to Reese his desire to part with his holdings. Reese having a firm belief in the coming importance of the city purchased Berri's property and thus laid the foundation of his great wealth. Among his benefactions was his gift to the University of California of the Lieber Library. The Michael Reese Hospital of Chicago, Ill., is his memorial, while his legacies to charities in the aggregate reached half a million dollars.

REEVE, Richard Andrews, Canadian physician: b. Toronto, 1842. He was graduated at Toronto University in 1862 and took his M.D. at Queen's University in 1865. He engaged in practice at Toronto and specialized in the treatment of the eye and ear. In 1867-72 he was assistant surgeon at the Toronto Eye and Ear Infirmary, and subsequently became lecturer on opthalmology and otology at the Toronto School of Medicine (now Medical Faculty of the University of Toronto). He was dean of the faculty in 1896-1908, when he resigned. He was president of the British Medical Association in 1905, and was then elected a life vice-president.

REEVE, Tapping, American jurist: b. Brook Haven, L. I., October 1744; d. Litchfield, Conn., 13 Dec. 1823. He was graduated from Princeton in 1763 and in 1767-70 was engaged as a tutor there. In 1772 he established a law practice at Litchfield, and during the war served as a recruiting officer and as a member of various committees of safety and defense. In 1784 he opened a law school at Litchfield which became justly famous and for years was without an American rival. He conducted it without assistance until 1795, when he became associated with James Gould, who succeeded him in 1820. He was a judge of the Supreme Court of Connecticut in 17981814, served as chief justice for a short time and subsequently served a single term in each the legislature and the council, after which he declined to hold further office. He was a Federalist, a lawyer of high ability and was the originator of the movement to secure to mar ried women the legal right to dispose of their own property. He published The Law of Baron and Femme; of Parent and Child; of Guardian and Ward; of Master and Servant,' etc. (1816), republished in numerous editions; and A Treatise on the Law of Descent> (1825).

REEVE, a bird. See RUFF.

REEVES, Arthur Middleton, American philologist: b. Cincinnati, Ohio, 7 Oct. 1856; d. in railway accident near Hagerstown, Ind., 25 Feb. 1891. He was graduated at Cornell in 1878. He specialized in the study of languages and after 1879, when he visited Iceland, he devoted much of his time to European travel

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and the study of the sagas and ancient manuscripts. With Beamish and Anderson he wrote "The Norse Discovery of America' (pub. posthumously 1906) Author of "The Finding of Wineland the Good' (1890; new ed., with biography and correspondence of the author, 1895).

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REEVES, rēvz, Helen Mathers, English novelist: b. Misterton, Somerset, 26 Aug. 1853. In 1876 she was married to Henry Albert Reeves, a London surgeon. 'Comin' Through the Rye, her first story (1875), was widely popular both in this country and her own, and among her later fictions are 'Cherry Ripe' (1877); As He Comes Up the Stair) (1878); 'My Lady Green Sleeves (1879); 'The Sin of Hagar (1896); 'Becky) (1900); Tally Ho! (1906); Pigskin and Petticoat' (1907); 'Love the Thief' (1909). Her style is pleasing and animated and the interest of her novels is well sustained.

REEVES, John Sims, English tenor singer: b. Woolwich, Kent, 26 Sept. 1818; d. Worthing, Sussex, 25 Oct. 1900. He studied music and,

in 1832, became organist in the church of North Cray, Kent, and made his first appearance as a singer in 1839 on the Newcastle stage. He first sang in London in 1842, and having studied in Paris and Milan made his first appearance at the La Scala Theatre of the latter city as Egardo in Donizetti's opera, 'Lucia di Lammermoor. His voice was of wide compass and great beauty

mellow and powerful, capable of the tenderest pathos and of the most stirring martial appeal, but always controlled by genuine artistic feeling and knowledge. He was heard to most advantage in the concert hall and in oratorio parts, and in such pieces as Guy Mannering' he displayed considerable histrionic ability. He published 'Life and Recollections' (1888) and My Jubilee' (1889).

REFEREE, in law, (1) a person who tries or examines an issue or question of fact sent to him by judicial order. (2) A person authorized by judicial order to take testimony and investigate on a given case. In England, under the Judicature Act of 1873, in the High Court of Justice trial before referees is ordered only on the consent of the parties or in cases in which accounts or documents are complicated and necessitate long investigation or involve local or scientific facts incapable of trial in the usual manner. Assessment of damages and inquiry and report may be ordered in any case. In the United States referees are appointed in bankruptcy cases and often in divorce proceedings, cases in which accounts are complicated and those in which secrecy is desirable.

REFERENCE AND RESEARCH BUREAUS, or SCHOOL RESEARCH BUREAUS, a type of office maintained in connection with the office of superintendent of schools, the functions of which are (1) to prepare statistical data from current reports to keep the superintendent informed as to the work of each school in the system, the relative standing of the schools and grades in educational accomplishment and the cost of operating the system; (2) to act as a clearing-house of current information, bringing the experience of other systems to the attention of local authorities; and (3) to conduct standard classroom measure

ments and other research work as will aid the superintendent and his supervisors in their administrative work. The object of such a specially organized bureau is to do this work during the current school term, so that the schools may make immediate use of the findings obtained and that preventive and remedial measures and economies may be put into effect during the same school year in which they are discovered. The most notable example of such a bureau is in Rochester, N. Y.

REFERENDUM, in the United States, the submission of the legislative acts of a representative assembly to the people for acceptance or rejection by popular vote. Under its American application, the referendum means that a specified time must elapse before a law (or, in case of a city, an ordinance) may go into effect, but if, during the period, a reasonable minority of the people should petition for a referendum on the law, it remains inoperative until after the following election, when it is either ratified or rejected by a majority of the popular votes. The period usually allowed before bills may become laws is 60 days and the percentage of voters who must sign a petition to secure a referendum varies from 5 per cent in South Dakota to 10 per cent in North Dakota. In 1906 Oregon amended her law so that the referendum might be invoked not only upon entire laws but also upon individual items or parts of laws. Every measure to be submitted to the people, on demand of initiative or referendum petitions, must be filed not less than four months before the general election. A comprehensive ballot title for each measure is formulated by the attorney-general and a campaign book is prepared by the Secretary of State. The proposed law is printed in full in this book as well as any arguments that may be advanced by the advocates or opponents of the measure, the interested parties paying the exact cost of the paper, and printing required to present these arguments. A copy of this book must be mailed by the Secretary of State to every registered voter in the State eight weeks before the general election, the State bearing the cost of printing the text of the law. and postage as a legislative expense. This enables the voter to familiarize himself with the authentic details of the proposition the fate of which he is called upon to determine and allows sufficient time for discussion between individuals and by every variety of organization throughout the State. Under this device the people may kill bad laws and overthrow the work of tools of political bosses who intend to foster their private or political fortunes in the State legislative body; moreover, by a threat of invoking this remedy, much pernicious legislation can be prevented, franchise stealing eliminated and the corrupting lobby rendered unprofitable. On the other hand if the legislature exhibits indifference to public requirements and persistently refuse to enact the necessary legislation, the people have an effective remedy in the initiative (q.v.) and to a considerable extent in the recall (q.v.).

Since the 16th century a form of referendum has existed in some of the cantons of Switzerland. Under the Swiss Constitution all constitutional amendments must be ratified by the electorate before they become law. In

REFERENDUM

eight cantons an obligatory referendum is in vogue, requiring the submission to the electorate of every law and every expenditure above a fixed maximum, and no demand for such submission to the electors is necessary. Other measures of national importance must be submitted to popular vote if, within 90 days after their publication, the governments of eight cantons or 30,000 votes throughout the republic should demand such submission. While the terms initiative and referendum were almost unknown in American politics prior to 1890, yet an analogy is to be found in colonial days. In the Plymouth colony, even after the towns began to send deputies to their representative legislature, the "whole body of the freemen❞ appeared at the June court to make laws and repeal such of the laws enacted by the legislature as appeared "prejudicial to the whole." Even in the Massachusetts constitution of 1780 the bill of rights expressly reserved to the voters the right to instruct their representatives in the legislature, and both prior to and after the Revolution this right was freely exercised. Almost from the beginning, with a few exceptions, the State constitutions and amendments thereto have been referred to the voters of the State for ratification or rejection. (See CONVENTIONS, CONSTITUTIONAL). Some of the States have introduced another type of referendum by amending their constitutions so that legislative acts, which relate to specific subjects (such as incurring a State debt or the sale of school lands), must be subjected to popular vote. In a few States, the constitutions of which contained no such authorization, the legislatures attempted to submit to popular vote miscellaneous questions of a perplexing nature, but this practice was checked by court decisions on the ground that such action on the part of representative assemblies was an unwarranted delegation of their law-making powers. In 1901 Illinois enacted a law which might be termed an "advisory initiative," providing that upon petition of 10 per cent of the registered voters a given proposal, such as a "question of public policy," must be submitted to the electorate of the entire State. A similar law has been passed in Delaware and several other States.

The first referendum league in the United States was organized in New Jersey in 1892 but South Dakota was the first State to adopt the optional or facultative referendum, the necessary amendment to the constitution being adopted in 1898. Her example was followed by Oregon (1902), Nevada (1905 and 1912), Montana (1906), Oklahoma (1907), Maine (1908), Missouri (1908), Arkansas (1910), Colorado (1910), Arizona (1911), New Mexico (1911), California (1911), Idaho (1912), Nebraska (1912), Ohio (1912), Washington (1912), Michigan (1908 and 1913), Massachusetts in a limited form (1913), North Dakota (1914), Maryland (1915) and Mississippi (1916). In 1900 Utah and in 1912 Idaho adopted amendments providing for the initiative and referendum, but the legislatures have not passed enabling acts; New Jersey is experimenting with the referendum in cities and in 1916 Minnesota rejected the plan. The Oregon amendment was bitterly attacked by its opponents who took the matter to court, where a minor judge declared the measure unconstitutional and not in accord with the provisions of the Federal Constitution.

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Appeal was taken to the Supreme Court of the State which tribunal not only reversed the decision of the lower court, but held that the referendum "does not abolish or destroy the representative form of government or substitute another in its place. The representative character of the government still remains."

In 1897 the Nebraska legislature enacted a law permitting the cities of that State, upon the vote of a majority of their citizens, to adopt direct legislation methods in the conduct of their affairs. In the same year Iowa extended the initiative to all questions of franchise save those of public ownership. Many Western cities have adopted the direct legislation reform, beginning with Seattle, Wash., in 1892, this city being quickly followed by Buckley, Wash., Alameda, Vallejo, San Francisco, Sacramento, Los Angeles, San Diego, Pasadena and many of the smaller cities of California; Portland, Ore., Grand Rapids and Detroit, Mich., Denver, Des Moines, Minneapolis, Nashville and others. Altogether the initiative, referendum and recall are used more or less completely in about 300 municipalities, some under general State laws and some under special charters. See INITIATIVE; RECALL.

Bibliography. Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics' (rev., New York 1914); Bacon, E. M., and Wyman, M., 'Direct Elections and Law-making by Popular Vote' (Boston 1912); Beard, C. A., and Schultz, B. E., Documents on State-wide Initiative, Referendum and Recall' (New York 1912, gives text of laws of various States); Boyle, James, The Initiative and Referendum (Columbus, Ohio, 1912); Baker, F. A., The Initiative and Referendum) (Detroit 1911); Barnett, J. D., (Operation of the Initiative, Referendum and Recall in Oregon' (New York 1915); Butler, N. M., 'Why Should We Change Our Form of Government' (ib. 1912); Cleveland, F. A., Organized Democracy' (ib. 1913); Coker, F. W., (Safeguarding the Petition in the Initiative and Referendum (in American Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 540-545, Baltimore 1916), and 'Interworkings of State Administration and Direct Legislation' (in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,' Vol. LXIV, pp. 122-133, March 1916); Commons, J. R., Proportional Representation' (New York 1907); Cushman, R. E., 'Recent Experience with the Initiative and Referendum' (in American Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 532-539, Baltimore 1916); Carey, C. H., 'Limitations on the Use of the Initiative and Referendum' (in Case and Comment, Vol. XXIII, pp. 353-357, Rochester, N. Y., 1916); Eaton, A. H., The Oregon System) (Chicago 1912); Galbreath, C. B., Provisions for Statewide Initiative and Referendum' (in Annals of the American Academy,' Vol. XLIII, pp. 81-109, September 1912; gives results of votes on various measures in the several States); Galbreath, C. B., 'Initiative and Referendum' (Columbus, Ohio, 1911); Gardner, C. O., 'Problems of Percentages in Direct Govern→ ment (in American Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 500-514, Baltimore 1916); Gove, F. E., The Initiative and Referendum' (Washington 1912); Hendrick, B. J., The Initiative and Referendum' and 'Law Making by the Voters' (in McClure's Magazine, Vol. XXXVII, pp. 235-248, 435-450, 1911); Haynes,

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REFINING-REFLEX ACTION

G. H., 'People's Rule in Oregon' (in Political Science Quarterly, Vol. XXVI, pp. 32-62, 1911) and People's Rule on Trial (in ib. Vol. XXVIII, pp. 18-33, 1913); Jones, C. L., 'Reading on Parties and Elections in the United States (New York 1912); Kales, A. M., 'Unpopular Government in the United States' (Chicago 1914); Lowell, A, L., 'Public Opinion and Popular Government' (New York 1913); Lowell, A. L., and others, "The Referendum in Operation' (in Quarterly Review, Vol. CCXIV, pp. 509-538, 1911); Lobingier. C. S., The People's Law (New York 1909); Lodge, H. C., The Compulsory Initiative and Referendum and the Recall of Judges' (Washington 1912); Lowrie, S. G., "The Wisconsin Plan for the Initiative and Referendum' (Philadelphia 1912); McCall, S. W., 'Representative against Direct Government' (in Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CVIII, pp. 454-466, 1911); Munroe, W. B., 'Initiative, Referendum and Recall' (New York 1912); Oberholtzer, E. P., 'The Referendum in America with Chapters on the Initiative and Recall' (New York 1912); Ogburn, W. F., 'Initiative and Referendum Tested in Hard Times (in Survey, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 693-694, 27 March 1915); Phelps, E. M., 'Selected Articles on the Initiative and Referendum (3d ed., White Plains, N. Y., 1914); Potter, E. S., Reforming the Initiative and Referendum (in Review of Reviews, Vol. II, pp. 212-215, February 1915); Schnader, W. A., Proper Safeguards for the Initiative and Referendum Petition) (in American Political Science Review, Vol. X, pp. 515-531, Baltimore 1916); Slosson, E. E., The Referendum in Action' (in Independent, Vol. XLIX, pp. 734740, 1910); Schaffner, M. A., The Initiative and Referendum' (in Wisconsin Library Commission, 'Comparative Legislation Bulletin,' No. 11, Madison 1907); Talbot, C. H., The Initiative and Referendum' (Madison, Wis.,_1910); Wilcox, D. F., Government by all the People: The Initiative, the Referendum and the Recall as Instruments of Democracy) (New York 1912); Woodburn, J. A., Political Parties and Party Problems (revised ed., New York 1914); The Initiative and Referendum, the Australian Ballot and the New England Town Meeting (in Massachusetts Law Quarterly, Vol. II, pp. 281-283, Boston 1917); 'Further Referendum Election Results' (in Survey, Vol. XXXVII, p. 206, 25 Nov. 1916); Some Indirections of Direct Government' (in The Nation, Vol. CII, pp. 243-244, 2 March 1916).

REFINING, in metallurgy, the last step in the purifying of gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, etc. Gold and silver are commonly mined together, and are sent from the smelters in bullion bars of mixed metal. It is the work of the refinery to part or separate this mixture into pure gold and silver. Both nitric and sulphuric acid are used in parting. In refining iron, the process has been developed on several lines, as converting and puddling. See METALLURGY; ASSAYING; GOLD; SILVER, etc.

REFLECTING GALVANOMETER, a most sensitive galvanometer, devised by Sir William Thompson for use in connection with the Atlantic submarine cables. A short needle is rigidly attached to a small concave mirror and suspended by a silk fibre in the centre of a vertical coil of small diameter. This mirror is

adjusted by means of a directing magnet to throw the rays of light (falling on the mirror through a hole having a fine wire stretched upright across it and placed just under the graduated scale opposite the mirror) back on the scale. An image of the wire is thus thrown on the scale, and the slightest motion of the needle and its mirror will produce a much greater motion of this image.

REFLECTION. See LIGHT.

REFLECTIONS ON THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE, published in 1790, remains to-day one of the most interesting and important of the writings of Edmund Burke (1729-97). The immediate object was an answer to a famous sermon which Dr. Price had preached in favor of the Revolution, but it amounts to a very comprehensive indictment of the entire revolutionary movement. Regarding the issue as of unparalleled importance, Burke devoted the greater part of the year to the preparation of the book. The spirit animating him was his dislike of revolution in comparison with the slower and less disrupting processes of reform. As such, the book has been cited (cf. Lord Hugh Cecil's 'Conservatism') as the Bible, primer and textbook of modern British conservatism, as the most distinguished commendation of the principles which dominated the present Conservative party in England, at least up to the outbreak of the World War. The book is a great philippic and jeremiad against the spirit of revolution in general and the French Revolution in particular. It is replete with sound, sober principles on the one hand and warnings and prophecy of disaster on the other. Many of these prophecies were justified by the Napoleonic event, and Burke's wisdom appears in very favorable and dignified light. The Reflections' were written with great care and elaboration in Burke's most weighty style, and no one of his writings is more replete with political philosophy and striking aphorism. He discusses such fundamental matters as the use of prejudice, superstition and power as forming valuable assets in government. Some of these passages are famous, such as his diatribe against revolutionary finance or his analysis of the principles of the great bad men like Cromwell; but the most resplendent_paragraph in the book is that describing the Dauphiness and lamenting the decay of chivalry in the world. John Morley's Burke' gives the best short account of the 'Reflections and their relation to Burke's other writings.

WILLIAM T. BREWSTER,

REFLECTOR, a smooth polished surface by which the rays proceeding from a luminous or heated object are thrown back or diverted in a given direction. The reflecting surface may be either plane or curved. In practice it is often made spherical or parabolic. The former does not bring the rays to a true focus, but is easily formed, and is consequently generally employed where extreme accuracy is not sought for. A mirror is a familiar example of a plane reflector. The reflectors of lighthouses have been very highly developed. (See LENS; LIGHT; LIGHTHOUSE). In telescopes, where a reflector is used the entire instrument has come to be known as a reflector. See TELESCOPE

REFLEX ACTION, a non-voluntary re

REFORESTATION- REFORMATION

action affecting a muscular apparatus in response to some kind of sensory stimulus. Such a reaction implies the traversing of the sensory stimulus to some nerve centre or centres in the brain, the medulla, or the spinal cord, and the setting free of a muscular response, general or local, to certain organs of the body, without the participation of willed conscious action, although consciousness of a reflex act performed may precede or accompany the act. Many of these reflexes are extremely intricate, so intricate in fact that certain philosophers have attempted to show that all life-processes are of the type of reflex actions. Many reflex actions, by reason of the fact that their muscular equivalent acts on blood vessels, may increase or decrease glandular activity. This fright may destroy the ability of the stomach to. digest. Dryness of the mouth is frequent as a result of certain forms of unconscious excitement, and many if not all of the emotions may be regarded materially as intricate forms of vasomotor reflexes. Further reflexes are constantly operative and affect the normal metabolism of the skin or the bones, and still others are concerned in the general nervous equilibrium of the entire body the so-called neuromuscular tone. See CONSCIOUSNESS; EMOTION; MUSCLESENSATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM; TELEPATHY.

REFORESTATION. See FORESTRY. REFORM ACTS. See REFORM BILLS. REFORM BILLS, in English history three bills, introduced in 1832, 1867 and 1882, for the purpose of increasing the electorate for the House of Commons and removing certain inequalities in representation. The first Reform Bill disfranchised many boroughs which enjoyed undue representation and increased that of the large towns, at the same time extending the franchise, and was put through by the Liberals. The bill of 1867 was passed by the Conservatives under the urging of the Liberals, while that of 1882 was introduced by the Liberals and passed in 1884; these two provided a more democratic representation. See GREAT BRITAIN; POLITICAL PARTIES; PARLIAMENT.

REFORM JUDAISM. See JEWS AND JUDAISM REFORM JUDAISM.

REFORM MOVEMENTS IN POLITICS. See ELECTORS; VOTE, VOTERS, VOTING; CORRUPT PRACTICES ACTS; CIVIL SERVICE REFORM; UNITED STATES-THE NEW DEMOCRACY AND THE SPOILS SYSTEM; LABOR LEGISLATION; PROHIBITION; PRIMARY, DIRECT; PRIMARY PRESIDENTIAL PREFERENCE; ELECTORAL FRAUDS AND SAFEGUARDS AGAINST; INITIATIVE; REFERENDUM; RECALL; WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

REFORMATION, The. The Reformation was the movement in the religious life of western Europe in the 16th century which resulted in the formation of the Protestant Church. At earlier periods there had been a feeling that conditions in the leadership of Christendom needed improvement and attempts at betterment were made along two distinct lines. The first was through the efforts of individual men, monastic orders and general councils to bring about changes for the better within the Church. Such a movement was undertaken by the Reforming Councils of Pisa, Constance and Basel in the 15th century where an unsuccessful attempt was made to reform the Church in head and members. The

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second way in which efforts had been made to improve the condition of Christendom was to form separate organizations outside of the Roman Catholic Church such as the Albigenses and Waldenses. These early separatist movements were not of any great importance because they affected only a comparatively small number of the Christians of Europe. These efforts to reform the Church from within and to establish other churches outside of Roman Catholicism had not met with success as the 15th century came to its close. The papal chair had been occupied for half a century by men who were more interested in the revival of learning and Italian politics than they were in giving Christendom the kind of leadership which it needed. Some of the popes contributed largely to the success of the Renaissance. Some were indifferent to religion and of immoral lives. The Reformation of the 16th century started as an effort to bring about reforms within the Roman Catholic Church, and it was only after this seemed impossible that the leaders withdrew from organized Roman Catholicism.

There are a number of reasons why the separation from the Church and the formation of a new organization met with success in the 16th century when the earlier efforts had failed. Most important of all was the revival of learning. Men were thinking for themselves as they had not before for centuries. The invention of printing brought about wide diffusion of knowledge. There was an opportunity through the study of the writings of the Early Church fathers to compare the Church of the first centuries in its belief and organization with the Church of the 16th century. It was evident to students that there was a wide difference between the two. The circulation of the New Testament also tended to bring about a diversity of opinion on religious matters. There was a growth of the national feeling in some of the nations of Europe, and an increasing desire that ecclesiastical affairs be handled within the nation rather than by the distant papacy, especially as the popes were involved in European politics. There was also a group of men who were fitted for leadership in the establishment of a separate Church. These men were able to accomplish what they did because of the growing consciousness that the Church as then organized and governed was not meeting the needs of the times, nor was it furnishing the moral and spiritual leadership which it had given in earlier centuries.

The Reformation began in Germany through the work of Martin Luther. A peasant by birth and a university graduate, he desired to make sure of his own salvation. He became an Augustinian monk and practised all the austerities of the order but did not find assurance of salvation. Through the help of friends in the order, by his study of the German mystics, and especially through the study of the New Testament he came to the belief that a man is not justified by works but by faith alone in Jesus Christ. Justification by faith came to be the foundation of his theology. He became professor in the University of Wittenberg and preached in that city. While he was here, the indulgence seller, Tetzel, began his work near Wittenberg and Luther preached against the sale of indulgences because it was

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