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RENT, LAW OF

to a preferential value. If we assume that there is always free land, that is, land which can be had free of charge, then the utmost which will be paid for the use of a particular piece of land is the equivalent of the superiority of this land over such free land as may be had. Something can always be produced on free land. If we can determine how much more can be proIduced with the same amount of labor and expenditure on a given piece of land than could be produced on free land, the difference between these two products will measure the degree of preference for the piece of land in question; or this difference in product will represent the preferential value of the better piece of land. Stated in formal terms, this law of rent is as follows: The rent of a given piece of land is equal to the difference between what it will yield under the method of treatment suited to its condition and that which the best free land available could be made to yield with the same application of labor and capital under a treatment suitable to its condition.

The cause of rent is undoubtedly the scarcity of land. This does not mean that all land of all qualities is scarce, but that lands of certain desirable kinds and qualities are scarce. These are the only lands that yield rent. If we consider a certain desirable piece of land and find that there is not enough of the same grade to supply all the needs of the community, then, in order that the needs of the community may be supplied, inferior grades of land must be brought into use. Rather than make use of these inferior grades, cultivators, builders and so forth will pay something for the use of the better grades. While the cause of rent is the scarcity of the better grades of land, the amount of rent is limited by the presence and availability of inferior grades of land and their degree of inferiority. If there is an abundance of land only slightly inferior to the piece of land in question, this piece of land will command a low rental. If there is a scarcity of inferior land and if it is vastly inferior to the piece of land in question, then the piece of land in question will command a high rental. There is another way of looking at the question of rent, though it leads to much the same conclusion. The rent of a given piece of land may be said to be equal to its social productivity. If a given piece of land is brought into cultivation, the labor and capital necessary to its cultivation cannot be used on other land, or if it is thrown out of cultivation, the labor and capital which formerly cultivated it must be now employed on other land. How much difference does it make to the community whether this piece of land is cultivated or not? If it is a good piece of land and is thrown out of cultivation, the labor and capital which formerly cultivated it will produce less when employed on other land than it formerly produced on the piece of land in question. When we determine how much less, we have a measure of the social value or the social productivity of the piece of land in question. If it is very poor land, and there is plenty of other land equally good on which the labor and capital can be employed, it will make no difference whatever to the total productivity of the community whether the piece of land in question is cultivated or not. In that case the piece of land in question is worth nothing and will command no rent, The

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more difference it makes to the community whether the piece of land in question is used or not, the higher the rental which it will command. THOMAS N. CARVER,

Professor of Political Economy, Harvard University.

RENT, Law of. Rent being the sum, duty or return levied on the occupants, lessee or user of land, buildings, apartments, rooms, machinery, tools, power, heat, artificial light, etc., for the benefit of the owner it follows that a relation is thereby instituted from which many legal complications may arise. The relation established that of landlord and tenant. A subtenant is one who rents all or part of the premises from the original tenant. A lease is a legal instrument by which the relation of landlord and tenant is formally established and which to a very great extent defines the privileges, duties and obligations of the parties subscribing to it. The relation is often less formally established and may arise by implication if the acts of the parties are consistent with it. A tenant is bound to pay the stipulated rent at the time stated in his lease or contract or otherwise agreed upon. Should he fail to do so, however, his status of tenant is not affected, but the landlord acquires a right to institute a civil action to recover the amount in default and further may levy a distress. A tenant who occupies the premises beyond the term of his lease or contract becomes liable for the rent of the next ensuing period, week, month, etc., as the case may be. He becomes in such a case a tenant at will and his tenancy may be terminated at the will of the landlord. Statutes in some jurisdictions hold that a tenancy not governed by a lease is a tenancy at will. Such a tenancy may be terminated in various ways, i.e., by the lease of the property to a third person, by the death of either the landlord or tenant, by the sale of the property, or by any act on the part of the landlord amounting to a demand for possession or showing such intention. A lease once signed, the lessee or tenant is ordinarily liable for the rent agreed upon whether or not he takes possession, except in the case where the premises are destroyed before the beginning of the term. lease is terminated by the sale of the property under foreclosure proceedings. Unless contained in the agreement a landlord is not compelled to make repairs, nor is he liable for them, and seldom for any injury caused by the condition of the premises. A landlord is generally liable to tenants for injuries due to accidental defects, and for any negligence on his part. In modern states increasing liabilities are being placed upon property-owners, property being held in less divine regard than formerly and persons proportionally higher. Thus in modern cities, the landlord is often obliged to keep passageways and approaches lighted, to prevent any obstruction of a passageway, which would render it dangerous. The duty of removing ice and snow in many cases devolves upon the tenant. Where heat, light, power, etc., are included in the agreement, failure of the landlord to supply same creates a right of the tenant to damages. The owner is obliged to maintain the premises in a habitable condition. Disputes and suits at law over repairs

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have been so numerous as to cause very many landlords to insert in their leases a clause that all repairs shall be made by the tenant. Of course this involves a reduced rental. An action at law at any time can be maintained by the landlord, or his assignee, to recover rent, and under ordinary circumstances no prior demand is necessary; in few jurisdictions, however, is the landlord authorized to attach the property of a tenant, but never the household goods, trade tools, etc. Courts have held that the right to collect rent was a species of real property that might be delegated, held in fee, or willed to posterity. Every State has its own laws and many municipalities have ordinances that tend to complicate greatly the relations of landlords and tenants. It is impossible, therefore, within the limits of the present article to give details of the statutes obtaining in the several jurisdictions. See FEE; LANDLORD AND TENANT; LEASE; PROPERTY, LAWS OF. Consult Kent, J., Commentary on American Law (14th ed., 4 vols., Boston 1896); Maine, H. J. S., Lectures in the Early History of Institutions) (7th ed., London 1897); Corpus Juris' (New York 1915 et seq.); Tiffany, H. T., The Law of Landlord and Tenant' (New York 1913); Williams, T. C., Principles of the Law of Real Property' (19th ed., London 1901).

RENTON, Wash., city in King County, 10 miles southeast of Seattle, on the Columbia and Puget Sound, the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul railroads. There are clay, coal and lumber interests and manufactories of bricks, briquettes and cars. Pop. 2,740.

RENUNCIATION, in law, the act of giving up a right, such as the position of an executor or administrator of an estate, or any other office, charge or claim to which the person renouncing is legally entitled. The term is applied especially to the act of an executor, who, having been nominated in a will, and having the option of acting as such or not, declines to act, and in order to avoid any liability expressly renounces the office. There are proper legal forms for such action.

RENWICK, Edward Sabine, American engineer and patent expert: b. New York, 3 Jan. 1823; d. 19 March 1912. He was graduated from Columbia in 1839 as a civil and mechanical engineer and became superintendent of large iron works at Wilkesbarre, Pa. In 1849 he began his career as a patent expert and in 1862, with his brother Henry Renwick, he repaired a break 82 feet long and 10 feet wide in the bilge of the Great Eastern while afloat, a feat deemed an impossibility by experts. He invented several machines and mechanical appliances and published 'Practical Invention' (1893).

RENWICK, James, Scottish covenanter: b. Moniaive, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 15 Feb. 1662; d. Edinburgh, 17 Feb. 1688. He was educated for the ministry at the University of Edinburgh, but upon declining to recognize Charles II as the head of the Church was refused a degree. He finished his education at Groningen, Holland, was ordained in 1683, returned to Scotland and engaged in preaching at conventicles. He was outlawed in 1684 as a result of publishing with Alexander Shields 'An Informatory Vindication of the Covenant

ers.' When James II came to the throne (1685), Renwick with 200 men went to Sanquahar, and published a declaration rejecting him, and in 1687, as the acknowledged leader of the Cameronians a price was put upon his head, and he was hunted from place to place. He was captured in the following year and executed at Edinburgh.

RENWICK, James, American scientist: b. Liverpool, England, 30 May 1790; d. New York, 12 Jan. 1863. He came with his parents to New York in 1794, was graduated from Columbia and in 1812 acted as instructor in natural philosophy there. In 1814 he became a topographical engineer with rank as major in the United States service and in 1820-53 was professor of chemistry and physics at Columbia. In 1840 he was engaged as one of the commissioners to survey the boundary line between United States and New Brunswick. His publications include Outlines of Natural Philosophy' (1822-23); Treatise on the Steam Engine (1830); 'Elements of Mechanics' (1832); Outlines of Geology' (1838); Applications of the Science of Mechanics to Practical Purposes' (1840); 'Memoir of De Witt Clinton' (1840); 'Life of John Jay' and 'First Principles of Chemistry) (1841); First Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1842); lives of 'David Rittenhouse' (1839); Robert Fulton' (1845), and Count Rumford' (1848), in Sparks's Library of American Biography'. lectures on Chemistry Applied to the Arts,'

etc.

RENWICK, James, American architect: b. New York, 3 Nov. 1818; d. there, 23 June 1895. He was son of the preceding, and was graduated at Columbia College in 1836. Among his many works are Grace Church, New York, completed in 1845; the Smithsonian Institution and the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D. C.; Vassar College, Poughkeepsie; and Saint Patrick's Cathedral, New York. This list of buildings shows the versatility of this truly learned architect, whose mastery of FrenchGothic, both in its details and proportions, enabled him to give New York two of the noblest ecclesiastical exteriors in the city. He gathered a remarkable collection of professional material which he bequeathed to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

REORGANIZED CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER DAY SAINTS, The, organized 6 April 1860, at Amboy, Ill. On 27 June 1844 Joseph Smith, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and his brother Hyrum, the Patriarch, were murdered by a mob at Carthage, Ill. Following this event several aspirants arose claiming the right to the presidency of the Church. The most prominent of these were Sidney Rigdon, William B. Smith and James J. Strang. Sidney Rigdon, who served as first counselor to the Prophet Joseph Smith 1833-44, was the first to make the claim, stating that the Church should choose him as "Guardian" to stand for the martyred president. By appointment, a conference of the Church was held 8 Aug. 1844, in Nauvoo, Ill., at which Mr. Rigdon presented his claims at length and was rejected by the assembled members when the question was put to vote. At this same conference the Twelve Apostles were sustained by unanimous vote as

REPAIRS REPEAL

the presiding quorum of the Church agreeable to the revelation which reads: "The Twelve traveling counselors are called to be the Twelve Apostles, or special witnesses of the name of Christ in all the world; thus differing from other officers in the Church in the duties of their calling. And they form a quorum equal in authority and power to the three Presidents previously mentioned.» (Doctrine and Covenants 107; 23-24). After the rejection of his claims, Sidney Rigdon became disaffected and withdrew to Pittsburgh, Pa., with a small following, over which he presided for a few years, when the organization, for lack of members, ceased to exist. William B. Smith claimed the right to the presidency by virtue of being the only surviving brother of Joseph Smith. His following was always small and soon disbanded. James J. Strang declared that he had been appointed by the Prophet Joseph Smith to be his successor, in a letter written but a few days before the tragedy. He was a man of some ability and gathered about him a few prominent men who refused to remain with the Church under the leadership of Brigham Young and the Twelve Apostles. For a time his organization appeared to flourish, but like the organizations of Sidney Rigdon and William B. Smith, soon fell into decay and was deserted by many members. In the year 1852 Jason W. Briggs, a resident of Beloit, Ill., and Zenas H. Gurley, gathered some of the scattered remnants from these organizations and formed branches at Beloit, Waukesha and Yellowstone, in what they called the "New Organization of the Church." Jason W. Briggs, it is said, held the office of Elder in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints previous to the death of Joseph Smith. Until 1846, the year of the exodus to the west, he remained a member of the Church. Later he joined the organization of James J. Strang, then that of William B. Smith in which he remained until 1851. Zenas H. Gurley, before the death of the Prophet Joseph Smith, held the office of Seventy. He also accepted the leadership of Brigham Young and the Twelve Apostles until the exodus in 1846, when he withdrew and became a member of the Church under James J. Strang. In this organization he labored diligently until 1851. After Jason W. Briggs and Ženas H. Gurley joined their forces in 1852, they commenced to preach the doctrine of the "rejection" of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints or the "original church" because they said the saints had failed to build the temple at Nauvoo within a given time, which expired at, or shortly following, the death of Joseph and Hyrum Smith. Because of this "rejection" they said it became necessary for the church to be newly organized that it might find favor with the Lord. They also promulgated the doctrine of "lineal priesthood" claiming that it was the right of the oldest son of Joseph Smith to succeed his father in the presidency of the Church. For a number of years they labored to induce Joseph Smith, son of the Prophet Joseph, to take the presidency of the new organization, but without success. Finally, at a conference held at Amboy, Ill., 6 April 1860, he consented and was installed as president of the new organization, which was later incorporated as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.

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The Saints' Herald, the official publication of the Church, was begun 1 Jan. 1860, at Cincinnati, Ohio. It was removed to Plano, Ill., March 1863. Since 1881 it has been published at Lamoni, Iowa. Joseph Smith was its editor-in-chief from 1865 to 1914. The Church held annual and semi-annual conferences until and including 1882, when the semi-annual were discontinued. The headquarters were at Plano, Ill., from 1863 to 1881; since then at Lamoni, Iowa. The quorums of the reorganization are organized in the same order which existed at the death of Joseph Smith. The doctrines are as follows:

A belief in God the Eternal Father, his Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost.

That men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam's transgression.

That all men may be saved by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the gospel, namely, faith in God and the Lord Jesus Christ; repentance; baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost; the resurrection of the body; that the dead in Christ will rise first; that men shall be judged, rewarded, or punished, according to the degree of good or evil they shall have done.

That a man must be called of God, and ordained by the laying on of hands of those who are in authority, to entitle him to preach the Gospel, and administer in the ordinances thereof.

In the same kind of organization that existed in the primitive Church.

That in the Bible is contained the word of God, so far as it is translated correctly. That the canon of Scripture is not full, but that God, by His Spirit, will continue to reveal His word.

In the powers and gifts of the everlasting gospel, namely, the gift of faith, discerning of spirits, prophecy, revelation, healing, visions, tongues, and the interpretation of tongues, wisdom, charity, brotherly love, etc.

That marriage is ordained of God; and that the law of God provides for but one companion in wedlock, for either man or woman, except where the contract is broken by death or transgression.

That the doctrines of a plurality and a community of wives are heresies. The Book of Mormon says: "Wherefore, my brethren, hear me, and hearken to the word of the Lord: For there shall not any man among you have save it be one wife, and concubines he shall have none.

That the religion of Jesus Christ, will, if its precepts are accepted and obeyed, make men and women better in the domestic circle, and better citizens, and consequently better fitted for the change that cometh at death.

That men should worship God in "Spirit and in truth;" and that such worship does not require a violation of the constitutional law of the land.

The Church has been more aggressive in its fight against polygamy than any other organization. The local work is divided into the following organizations according to latest reports: Two States, Lamoni, Iowa; and Independence, Mo.; both organized in 1901; 74 districts; 62 in the United States, two in Australia, five in England, two in Wales, two in Canada and one in Nova Scotia. The reorganization supports Graceland College and a home for the aged, both at Lamoni, Iowa. It is prosecuting missionary work throughout the United States, the Canadas, Australia, New Zealand, Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, the British Isles, Scandinavia and other countries. The membership is about 75,000.

REPAIRS. See LAW OF LANDLORD AND

TENANT.

REPARATIVE SURGERY. See SUR

GERY.

REPEAL, the rescission, annulling, or revocation of a law. Repeal of a statute may be express or implied. It is express when the repealing statute states specifically that a prior statute has been abrogated. It is implied when the statute does not refer specifically to a prior

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statute but contains provisions wholly or in part repugnant thereto. In case only a part is repugnant, the other part of the prior statute continues in effect.

REPEAL MOVEMENT, the agitation for the repeal of the Union between Great Britain and Ireland. This agitation began almost at the moment of the Union, and has continued to the present time. Robert Emmet sacrificed his life to the cause of repeal in 1803. But the word repeal is most intimately connected with the name and career of Daniel O'Connell, the Irish "Liberator." O'Connell died in 1847, and the cause of repeal was taken up by the Young Ireland party of 1848; by the Fenians, whose operations came to a head in 1865-67; and finally by the Home Rule party organized under the leadership first of Isaac Butt, in 1870, and later under the leadership of Charles S. Parnell. During the celebrated Parnell Commission of 1888-89, however, the Home Rule party, through their counsel, disclaimed all desire for repeal, maintaining that their aims were confined to the obtaining of Home Rule in the strict, or restricted, sense of the word.

REPEATER, in arithmetic, an indeterminate decimal in which the same figures continually recur or are repeated. A pure repeater, or circulating decimal, is one in which the repetition goes on from the beginning; as, .3333... .272727 . . . A mixed repeater is one in which the repetition does not begin till after the intervention of a figure or figures; as, .128888 . .0113636 etc. For the algebraic method of finding the value of a repeating decimal see PROGRESSION.

In firearms, an arm which may be caused to fire several successive shots without reloading, whether rifle, pistol or cannon. In horology, a watch or clock made to strike the time when a spring is pushed in. Some strike the hour and quarter, others the hour, quarter and odd minutes. Nautically, a vessel, usually a frigate, appointed to attend each admiral in a fleet, and to repeat every signal he makes, with which she immediately sails to the ship for which it is intended, or the whole length of the fleet when the signal is general; called also a repeating ship. In telegraphy, the same as relay.

REPEATING. See BALLOT.

REPENTANCE, or CONTRITION, as understood by divines, both Protestant and Catholic, is defined by the Council of Trent as "grief of mind and detestation of sin committed, with a purpose of sinning no more"; more specifically it is that sorrow for sin which arises out of consideration of God's goodness which sin has outraged, and which includes a resolution never more to offend God because God so deserves our love. This is the repentance called by Protestant divines "goodly sorrow." The same Protestant divines recognized a second kind of repentance, which mourns that sin is attended by a penalty rather than hates sin. This differs little from the "attrition" of Catholic divines, which is an imperfect sorrow for sin arising from such motives as fear of hell, loss of heaven, the turpitude of sin. Consult Psalms li, 4; Acts v, 31, xl, 18; 2 Timothy ii, 25; Matthew xxvii, 3-5.

REPLACEMENT. See METASOMATISM,

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REPLEVIN, re-plěv'in (French replevin, from Middle Latin replivire, to pledge), an action for the recovery of unlawfully possessed or detained goods or chattels. The action requires the issue of a writ for the seizure of the goods. To effect this the plaintiff must file a bond large enough to cover all probable resulting damage of the action to the defendant; or the latter may, in some cases, give bond and retain the possession of the contested goods until the case is settled. Should the plaintiff win the action he is entitled to the return of the goods, or, in case this be impossible, the payment of their value. In either case he is also entitled to damages for the retention of the goods. But should the plaintiff lose the action the defendant may recover damages and may sue for the same on the plaintiff's bond.

REPLICATION, from the Latin replicatio, an answer, a reply. In law, the reply of the plaintiff to the defendant's plea.

REPLY TO HAYNE, The. The reply delivered by Daniel Webster of Massachusetts in the United States Senate 26-27 Jan. 1830 (to Senator Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina) was the culmination of a debate that arose over an unimportant resolution regarding the sale of the public lands, and grew to include sectional political issues. The oration may be divided into two sections. The first replies in detail to charges of political inconsistency which had been brought against New England and against Webster personally, and closes with a glowing eulogy on Massachusetts. The second and more important section opposes the claim of South Carolina to the right of nullification, and leads up to the famous peroration on the Union, closing "Union and Liberty, now and forever, one and inseparable." This last passage was for many years the best-known piece of American political oratory with the exception of Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty, or give me death." The two impassioned outbursts, closing the two sections of the address, are, however, each but a paragraph in length. The greater part of the Reply, which occupied four hours in the delivery, is taken up with simple and direct reasoning, and while it gives the sense of great moral earnestness on the part of the speaker it contains no obvious appeal to the feelings of the hearers. Webster, who according to tradition once said that his whole life had been a preparation for the 'Reply to Hayne, spoke almost extemporaneously, and the chief impression which his address produces is that of vast grasp of all the widely different matters on which he touches. There were two sides to the questions under discussion, as there always are, but to many of his hearers he seemed to have annihilated the arguments of his opponent. In a private letter Webster once referred somewhat oddly to the Reply as "No. 1 among my political efforts," and to the Seventh of March Speech as "probably the most important effort of my life." By an almost unanimous verdict his admirers, many of whom disagreed with the political sentiments of the Seventh of March Speech, have given highest rank to the Reply to Hayne.

WILLIAM B. CAIRNS, Associate Professor American Literature, University of Wisconsin.

REPORTING-REPPLIER

REPORTING. See JOURNALISM; NEWSPAPERS, AMERICAN.

REPOUSSÉ, re-poo'sa'. A term taken from the French, meaning "beaten back." It is used to designate the formation of raised (relief) ornament in metal on flat or hollow ware. In its stricter interpretation the term refers to that division of beaten relief work which is performed by hammering or punching on the reverse (negative) side of the metal. This is, therefore, embossing as contradistinguished from chasing, which latter process is the hammering or driving of the metal into recesses (depressing). Inasmuch as the relief ornament is, almost invariably, followed by a finishing process of chasing, the entire performance (of relief and intaglio work on a single piece) is, by extension, frequently termed repoussé work. The great esteem in which repoussé work of fine character is held by connoisseurs is enhanced by the knowledge that the quality of the production depends solely on the skill of the craftsman. The art dates back to very early history, and the ancients did very refined, delicate work in this process, as is proven by such examples as the Bernay Treasure (see SILVERWARE) and other finds of silver, gold and bronze art metal work (see BRONZES). To the Greeks the process was known as sphyrelaton. Repoussé work is about the most dif

ficult the craftsman in metal can undertake, requiring great skill and patience to obtain fine execution, and for this very reason the great gold and silversmiths of all times have loved to display their skill in this medium; Greeks, Romans, Italians, Dutch. French and Germans have all left us grand examples. The golden altar in Cluny Museum, Paris (see Altar), is a beautiful 11th century example of repoussé work.

Technique. As above stated, this process consists of hammering or punching embossed work from the reverse side. In efficient work the whole surface, both the relief and the background, should remain of equal thickness as near as possible. This involves hammering up the metal sheet (termed blank) to thicken, or reinforce, the parts which are to be in relief, so that, while covering a larger surface than the flat, the thickness of the "walls" may be maintained. Another chief difficulty to overcome is the fact that hammering on the metal tends to harden and cause "temper" or brittleness. A frequent "annealing" is, therefore, necessary. Annealing is the softening process brought about by bringing the metal to red heat, then "quenching" in "pickle" or water. In the case of copper the quenching can be done at red heat, but with brass or silver the metal should cool down somewhat. The first process in producing repoussé work is to get a copy of the required design on to the metal; for which there are several processes, but the simple methods of pasting the drawing on the metal or tracing it on to the surface with carbon paper and stylus, or a needle point, are commonly used for flat work. For hollow ware surfaces the work has to be done by freehand generally, using "dividers" for tracing the measurements. In the case of flat work, the blank is placed face downward, the design being on the reverse side, on a board which is faced with a composition which will yield to the blows of the tool yet

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maintain the surrounding surface to support the remainder of the metal. Usually a composition is used containing pitch (Stockholm or Swedish preferred) mixed with tallow or some other substance to soften it and overcome its tendency to brittleness; brickdust, plaster of Paris or resin are often used for this purpose. In high relief work the pitch must be kept warm so as to be sufficiently soft to take on deep impressions. But, in order to avoid the inconveniences of working on such a soft, sticky substance, lead, tin or zinc are frequently used to support the metal that is to be hammered into high relief. For surfaces which are not in the flat a "pitch bowl and ring" are used as support. A hemispherical bowl filled with the pitch is rested on a thick ring of leather, rope or other substance. This contrivance permits the worker to tilt the surface in any desired direction.

Tools.- At least two hammers are needed, one with flat face, the other a "chasing" hammer with handle ending bulb-shape; a wooden mallet can take the place of the latter. Punches and several kinds of chasing tools should be numerous if it is desired to avoid monotonous effects; a "tracer" and a "back grounding" tool are needed, and, to ease operations, at least 50 different punches are required (which Bossing and cushion" tools vary in form (but are best shaped by the individual worker). the edges must be eliminated) and are used to produce bosses or ridges. "Modelling" and "chasing" tools have a flatter working end; "lining," "freezing" and "mátting" tools are used to produce "texture" on the surface and contain working surfaces in lines, grooves, hatchings, etc. "Ring" tools produce a depressed circular mark; "backgrounding" tools, of course, are for giving background texture. "Snarling irons" are for working in the interior of hollow ware (such as ewers, vases, etc.) and are made in elongated Z shape; they are fastened at one end in a vice the other end (which is provided with a knob or button) is inserted in the orifice of the hollow piece, pressing against the surface to be operated on. A blow of the hammer on the tool near the vice sets the free end in vibration whose percussion produces on the inside of the vessel a depression, therefore a corresponding embossing effect on the outer (positive) surface. Consult Gawthorp, 'A Manual of Practical Instruction in the Art of Brass Repoussé Work for Amateurs' (London 1899); Horth, A. C., Repoussé Metalwork: a Scheme of Sheet Metal Work for Schools and Amateurs (London 1905); Maryon, H., 'Metal Work and Enamelling' (London 1912).

CLEMENT W. COUMBE,
Technical Art Expert.

REPPLIER, rep'ler, Agnes, American essayist: b. Philadelphia, Pa., 1 April 1855. She is of French descent and was educated at the convent of the Sacred Heart, Torresdale. Her essays are characterized by lightness of touch, a keen sense of the humorous side of a theme and not a little irony. She published 'Books and Men (1888); Points of View) (1892); 'In the Dozy Hours) (1894): Essays in Idleness' (1893); Essays in Miniature' (1892); (Varia) (1897); and ‘Philadelphia: the Place and the People' (1898); 'The Fireside Sphinx'

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