(1901); Compromises' (1904); In Our Convent Days (1905); 'A Happy Half Century) (1908); Americans and Others' and 'The Cat' (1912), etc. She also compiled a 'Book of Famous Verse' (1892), and was a contributor to the Saturday Evening Post.

REPRESENTATION. See MINORITY AND

PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION.

REPRESENTATION, (1) the authorized acting by one person in behalf of another, as in a legislative assembly; also, the system of choosing such representatives. Representation in a modified form was known in ancient times, and the principle was extended by the Church, in its ecumenical councils. The Germanic nations, however, were the first to adopt political representation, having employed it in their popular assemblies. Later it spread to Great Britain and still later to the United States, in which latter country it developed into the representative democracy which still endures. Representation to-day is found not only in republics, as the United States, but in monarchies also, as Great Britain. In republics, however, representatives are less restricted in their power than in monarchies, it being usual in the latter to place a check in the form of an appointed or hereditary upper house to control legislation. In early times representation was largely by classes, and to-day this principle is still carried out to some extent in England. There is much conflict of opinion as to whether a national representative should follow closely the wishes of his constituents solely or whether he should, in case of conflicting interests, prefer to use his powers in a manner that would most benefit the entire country. The latter view appears to dominate, but it is nevertheless a fact that representatives, especially those seeking re-election, are largely influnced by the wishes of their constituency.

Majority, Minority and Proportional Representation. In the United States the majority generally rules, and no provision is usually made for giving the proportionate representation to the minority that it would seem in all justice to require. It often happens, owing to the system of representation in vogue in the United States, that a party which casts less than 40 per cent of the votes in a Congressional or other election may have all the representation while the parties casting the remainder of the votes have no representation whatever. In Illinois an attempt was made to remedy this by the constitution of 1870, which provided for what is known as the "free vote." This system, as applied in this State, affects the election of members of the lower house of the legislature only, and by the provisions of the constitution each voter may cast as many votes for each candidate as there are representatives to be elected or he may apportion such votes, or equal parts thereof, among the candidates, if he so desires, and those receiving the largest number of votes shall be elected, three representatives being chosen in each district. The chief objection to this method is that at best it gives only minority and not proportional representation, gives it solely to a very large minority and ignores third parties entirely. Another objection is that the politicians of the two leading

parties have rendered the regulation practically valueless by manipulation in naming the candidates. For instances, in districts largely Democratic, the Democratic party makes but two nominations and the Republicans one, thus ensuring the election of two Democrats and one Republican in a very large preponderance of cases. Another method advocated for the reform of present methods is known as the "limited vote," which has been used in England, and also in Pennsylvania in choosing Supreme Court judges, county auditors and other officials and in New York for the selecting of members at large to the Constitutional Convention of 1867. By this method each voter has less votes than there are offices to be filled. For example, where there are three offices, the voter has only two votes. This method, in a modified form, is in effect in a number of countries, among them Portugal and Spain. Another method, known as the "transferable vote" or "Hare system," is complicated but much favored by advocates of the minority system. By this method a voter indicates his choice (1st, 2d, etc.) by number, after voting for as many candidates as he desires. The total number of votes cast is divided by the number of offices to be filled, and the quotient gives the "quota," or number of votes necessary to elect a candidate. At the first count of votes, only the first choices are reckoned and those that receive at least a quota are declared elected. After this, if all the offices are not filled, the remaining votes of the candidates who have been declared are transferred to the candidate having second choice, and the process is continued until all the offices are filled. Tasmania adopted this method, for all elections in 1907, and it is in use also in Moravia, Denmark and Iceland. Another method, in use in Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe, is known as the "free-list" system. Under it any organized party may nominate as many candidates as it desires, but not to exceed the total number of places to be filled. Any voter may cast as many votes as there are candidates to be elected, but not more than one for any candidate. The total vote cast is then divided by the number of places to be filled, and this gives the quota of representation. The total vote cast by each party divided by this quota gives the number of representatives to which each party is entitled. For example, if 20 representatives are to be elected, with 1,000,000 voters in the district, the Democrats polling 400,000, the Republicans 350,000 and the Socialists 250,000, the quota is found by dividing the total votes cast (1,000,000) by the number of representatives to be chosen (20), equalling 50,000. This would give the Democrats eight representatives, the Republicans seven and the Socialists five. Other systems are in use which are modifications of those above described.

(2) In law, an oral or written statement of fact, as one made incidentally or collaterally to a contract. Whether express or implied, a material false representation made by one party to a contract, if acted upon and believed by the other party to his injury, will render such contract void; (3) the principle by which the lineal descendants of a deceased person inherit or take part of the estate which their ancestor would have inherited if he had survived.

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT. Representative government in the modern meaning of the term was unknown to the ancients. Kings, chiefs and administrative officers were often elected by popular vote or acclamation, but neither in ancient Greece nor Rome did a body exist even remotely resembling a Congress, a Parliament or a Reichstag. States which were not absolute despotisms were governed, as a rule, by a council of magistrates and a popular assembly, in which latter all persons with civic rights took part, and which was very much like a New England town meeting; but there is no instance of the popular assembly of ancient times developing into a representative body. The Roman Senate was composed of magistrates and ex-magistrates and resembled the American Senate of to-day only in name. This ancient system, which appears from the standpoint of to-day both unwieldy and unruly, was well enough fitted, however, for the so-called republics in which it prevailed, and in which all power was reserved to the central city, whether Athens, Thebes or Rome. The citizens in public assembly stood for the state, and were the state, and did not think it necessary to delegate their powers to representatives. When civic rule in Rome gave place to imperialism, the public assembly ceased to exist, while the Senate was retained to register the decrees of the Cæsars, and offer honorable retirement to those who had gained imperial favor.

Representative government, as we know it to-day, is not derived, therefore, from any Roman or Greek institution. It is essentially an outgrowth of that love of liberty inherent alike in Saxon, Norman and Celt, and reached its present development through centuries of struggle and of political and social evolution. The English Parliament, with its combination of medieval House of Lords and 20th century House of Commons, has grown gradually from beginnings dating back almost to the Norman Conquest. The barons asserted their rights against tyrannical kings, and the necessities of the kings compelled them to recognize the wellto-do classes outside the nobility, who had the wealth of which the royal exchequer stood badly in need. Taxation gave birth to representation, and at length it became a recognized principle that Englishmen would not stand taxation imposed without their own consent through representatives in Parliament assembled. was not, however, until far into the 19th century that the common people of England were permitted to have a voice in public affairs, and not until 1885 that the suffrage was bestowed on virtually all male subjects of adult age in the United Kingdom. The Parliament of today, therefore, represents the English people; less than half a century ago it represented only the privileged classes.

It

Representative government_in_the_United States inherited its spirit from England, but not its form. The American system is of native origin. It developed from town-meeting to assembly, and when the new States adopted new fundamental laws, the upper house was called a senate, after the ancient Roman Senate, while the right of originating measures of taxation was reserved to the popular branch of the legislature. In the United States, also, however, the right or privilege of voting was generally restricted to taxpayers and property-owners

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for many years after independence, and in one of the States-Rhode Island-a landholding qualification for foreign-born citizens existed until a few years ago. Excepting some peculiar restriction intended to prevent negroes from voting in certain Southern States, nearly all male citizens of adult age now possess the right to vote. The second decade of the 20th century saw the extension of the suffrage to women in many States of the Union and the passage of the Federal amendment to the Constitution, in 1918, by which all women in the United States are enfranchised ends the long struggle in other States and confers the voting power on millions, making for a really representative government. See SUFFRAGE,

In the Hanseatic towns, in Switzerland, the Italian free cities, and other republics of the Middle Ages, representative government had no real existence so far as the common people were concerned, and the parliaments of modern, Europe are not derived from the institutions of those states. The American Revolution gave the impulse and inspiration needed to awaken the people of Europe to a sense of their rights and wrongs and the constitutions granted by monarchs on the Continent to their subjects adopted as models a mixture of the English and American systems. Every European country at present has a congress or parliament in which the people are represented by deputies elected according to law. Japan has a similar system, and representative government, which 100 years ago was practically confined to the United States and England, is now coextensive with civilization in every continent. See DEMOCRACY; GOVERNMENT; and consult Beard, Charles A., American Government and Politics' (New York 1910); Commons, John R., 'Proportional Representation (2d ed., ib. 1907); Garner, J. W., 'Introduction to Political Science (1910); McLaughlin, A. C., and Hart, A. B., Cyclopedia of American Government' (3 vols., New York 1914); Stubs, W., 'Constitutional History of England' (London 1897). REPRESENTATIVES, Election of. See ELECTIONS; ELECTORAL QUALIFICATIONS; CON

GRESS.

REPRESENTATIVES, House of. See HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES; CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES; SENATE, UNITED STATES; ASSEMBLY, LEGISLATIVE; Legislature.

REPRESENTATIVES, State. See ELECTORAL QUALIFICATIONS.

REPRIEVE, in law, a temporary suspension of the execution of a sentence after conviction of a crime, as by a governor or a sovereign; also, the instrument granting such suspension. The term to-day is usually applied with reference to sentences of death only. Reprieves are usually granted by the chief executive of a nation or state, among some of the reasons being newly-discovered evidence affecting favorably the case of the condemned, pregnancy, insanity occurring after sentence of death and to allow time for the determination of facts after a pardon has been requested. Sometimes the court which tried the prisoner may grant a reprieve.

REPRISALS, in international law, (1) forcible seizure and retention of the goods of an enemy in retaliation or as satisfaction.

While it is an act of war, it is usually resorted to for the purpose of avoiding war and is always accompanied by force, as by the seizure of property. Sometimes naval forces are landed on territory of the offending nation and the custom-house and other public buildings are taken and held until satisfaction has been secured. Compensation should first be demanded by a state before resort is had to reprisal. (2) A retaking of one's own property by force.

REPROACHES, or IMPROPERIA (a Latin word of the same meaning), in the Roman Missal, a part of the divine service which on Good Friday is substituted for the usual daily mass. While the clergy and people are paying veneration to the representation of the Crucified before the high altar, two pairs of choristers chant alternately a series of antiphons, to which two choruses respond in versicles, Greek and Latin alternately, then repeating part of the antiphon. There are 12 Improperia, the first being: "My people, what have I done to thee? or wherein have I vexed thee? For that I led thee out of the land of Egypt, thou has provided a cross for thy Saviour." Again: "I lifted thee up with mighty power; and thou hast hanged me on the gibbet of the cross." These reproaches were first sung to plain-chant melodies, preserved in the 'Graduale Romanism,' and still extensively used, but in the Sistine Chapel, since 1560 they have been sung to some exquisite "faux bourdons,» to which they were adopted by Palestrina.

REPROBATION, a dogma of the Calvinistic creeds, which teaches the predestination of some of the children of Adam to be eternally lost. Though the word reprobation is not used in the Westminster Confession of Faith and does not occur in the Authorized Version or Revised Version, the definite reprobation of those who are not predestinated to everlasting life is unequivocally expressed in this passage of the Confession (iii, 7): "The rest of mankind" - that is, all but the elect to everlasting happiness-"God was pleased, according to the unsearchable counsel of his own will, whereby he extendeth or withholdeth mercy as he pleaseth, for the glory of his sovereign power over his creatures to pass by and to ordain them to dishonour and wrath for their sin, to the praise of his glorious grace." Among the passages of the New Testament that are cited in support of this doctrine are Rom. ix, 11-22; 1 Thess. v, 9; 1 Pet. ii, 8; Jude 4.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. See ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE.

REPTILES, or REPTILIA, a class of vertebrate animals. Although no two groups of Vertebrata are more dissimilar in general appearance and habits, and to the popular mind might seem more unrelated than the birds and reptiles, they are, by common consent of modern systematists, combined in a superclass, the Sauropsida, of Huxley, or the Monocondylia, of Haeckel and Cope. The Sauropsida are distinguished by the possession of lungs, gills being permanently absent. The embryo possesses an amnion and allantois, the former being a sac investing the body, the latter a structure developed from the lower surface of the embryo and serving for respiration. The lower jaw in Sauropsida is compound in that each half or

ramus consists of a number of distinct pieces; while in mammals each half consists of but a single piece. The lower jaw in reptiles and birds further articulates with the skull, not directly, but through the intervention of a separate and distinct bone, the os quadratum or quadrate bone. The skull is joined to the spine by one condyle only; two such condyles exist in amphibians and mammals. As compared with the fishes and batrachians the basal axis of the brain-case is bony instead of cartilaginous and the parasphenoid bone is absent. The bodies of the vertebræ are formed chiefly of centra (that is, are gastrocentrous) instead of intercentra (notocentrous) as in the Amphibia. Very rarely and only in extinct forms is the notochord persistent. The ankle joint is placed in Sauropsida, not as in mammals, between the tibia and the astragalus, but between the proximal and distal parts of the tarsus which in Sauropsida becomes thus divided. The coracoid bone is almost always well developed. The intestine ends in a cloaca. No complete diaphragm is developed to separate the thorax from the abdominal cavity. The corpus callosum uniting the halves or hemispheres of the cerebrum is rudimentary, no mammary glands exist and the Sauropsida are oviparous or ovo-viviparous. Such are the characters common to birds and reptiles.

Comparison with Birds.- Reptiles differ from birds in the following characters, which may, therefore, be taken as including the definition of the class Reptilia. The covering consists of horny scales or of bony plates (scutes), but never of feathers. The blood is cold and two aortic arches (right and left) exist in living Reptilia. The heart is three chambered in all save the crocodiles, which possess a fourchambered heart. But in all reptiles, without exception, the venous and arterial currents of blood are connected and an impure or mixed blood is thus circulated throughout the body. The lungs do not present the open character of those of birds, but, like those of mammalia, are in modern reptiles almost always closed sacs. The tarsal and metatarsal bones of the hind limbs, which in birds are united to form a single bone, are distinct and separate in the great majority of reptiles. When a sacrum exists it bears sacral ribs, which articulate with the ilia or haunch-bones.

Skeleton. The body in reptiles is generally elongated, the tortoises and their allies presenting the most notable exceptions to this rule. The limbs may be entirely wanting, as in most snakes and in many lizards; or only a pair of limbs may be developed, as in some lizards; while in most other reptiles all four members are present. The bones of reptiles are more compact than those of lower vertebrates. In the reptilian skeleton the five different regions into which the spine is ordinarily divided are to be recognized, except in the serpents and a few others. There are seldom more than two sacral vertebræ, and free cervical ribs are usually present. The epiphysial and other sutures of the vertebræ are retained through life. The bones of the shoulder-girdle of each side include a simple or divided scapula or shoulderblade and an often complex coracoid bone, including precoracoid and epicoracoid, the latter bone of each side articulating with the sternum or breast-bone when the latter is present.

In addition a clavicle and interclavicle may be present. The fore-limbs consist each of a humerus, radius and ulna, the carpal bones and normally five digits. The pelvis contains its three typical elements, ilium, ischium and pubis, the first being often of larger size and the last usually forming a symphysis. In serpents the shoulder-girdle is totally absent and vestiges of the pelvic-girdle appear only in a few instances; and in the turtles both are enclosed within the shell, except that the clavicle and interclavicle form part of the plastron. The limbs are usually adapted for running, but sometimes for leaping and in the extinct pterodactyls for flight. In the extinct marine pelagic reptiles, and in the modern sea-turtles, they are paddle-like. The ribs in reptiles are always present, but may differ greatly in form and dispostion, those of the turtles, for example, contributing toward the formation of the upper shell or carapace.

Skull. The skull of Reptilia possesses but a single occipital condyle, which is sometimes tripartite. The quadrate bone is generally firmly fixed to the skull, joining the squamosal bone, but is freely movable in serpents and only less so in many lizards. Each half or ramus of the lower jaw is composed of dentary, angular, surangular, coronoid, splenial and articular bone. Other regions of the skull are modified in the greatest varieties of ways in the several orders, the most important from a systematic standpoint being in the bones which form the complex roof of the temporal fossa. Primitively this roof is complete as in the stegocephalianbatrachians, but by the formation of one or two openings (supra- and infra-temporal vacuities) it is divided into one (Synapsida) or two (Diapsida) longitudinal bars behind the orbits. Through variations in the size and position of these openings, to which may be added emarginations, this region is modified, and may even practically disappear altogether, as in the snakes.

Digestive Organs.- The teeth are generally well developed, but in the Chelonia are wanting, the jaws, like those of birds, being ensheathed in horn. The reptilian teeth, like those of lower Vertebrata generally, are adapted less for mastication than for merely retaining prey while it is being swallowed. Save in the crocodiles and in some extinct forms the teeth are not implanted in sockets or alveoli, but are attached in various ways and by bony union to the jaw-bones. Teeth may be borne by bones other than the jaws (for example, palate bones); and, as seen in the poison-fangs of serpents, may be modified for special purposes. teeth vary greatly in number and are not persistent, new teeth being produced in regular order (as in crocodiles) from a growing pulp at the base of the socket, the new tooth displacing the old.

The

The tongue may be elongated, distensible and bifid, as in many lizards and serpents; short, thick and non-protrusible, as in other lizards; or completely attached and fixed throughout its entire extent, as in Crocodilia. The esophagus or gullet is usually greatly distensible (as in serpents), and may be covered (as in some Chelonia) with retroverted spines. The stomach is mostly pyriform or pear-shaped, and (as in snakes) may, like the gullet, be capable of great distension. Ophidia it exhibits an anterior dilated part, with

In

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thin walls for receiving nutriment, and a posterior hinder portion with non-distensible walls provided with glands and adapted for digesting the food. In the crocodile the stomach resembles the gizzard of a grain-eating bird in its high muscularity.

Circulation. The heart in reptiles consists of two auricles (right and left) and a ventricle, except in the Crocodilia, in which two auricles and two ventricles are developed. The aortæ or main arterial trunks exist, and are respectively named right and left aorta. These chief vessels bend around the gullet and unite to form a single and common main-trunk for the supply of blood to the system generally. But the chief peculiarity in the circulation of all reptiles consists in the peculiar mixture of arterial with venous blood, which takes place in the aorta in such a manner that the head alone is supplied with arterial blood. The reptiles exhibit sluggish habits, slow respiration and a series of vital actions marked by no active conditions demanding a more perfect circulation or highlyoxygenated blood. The blood is cold (poikilothermic) in reptiles, that is, but little higher in temperature than the surrounding medium, with changes in which it varies. The red bloodcorpuscles are oval and nucleated.

Respiration in reptiles is carried on solely by means of lungs, the presence of branchia or gills in early life, and sometimes in the adult life also of batrachians, constituting a marked difference between these latter and reptilian forms. In the Crocodilia, Chelonia and most lizards, the lungs are equally developed, but in serpents and some lizards only one lung is fully developed, the right lung being usually abortive. The lungs may, as in snakes and other Reptilia, in which the body is elongated, be of proportionally large size, and may extend nearly throughout the whole length of the bodycavity which is not separated by a complete diaphragm into a distinct thorax and abdomen. In the crocodiles, lizards and serpents the respiratory action is carried on through movements of the walls of the trunks. But in turtles, in which no movements can take place, air is drawn into the lungs by a process analogous to swallowing. The larynx or organ of voice is simple in structure, no vocal cords being in general developed, although these organs appear in crocodiles and some others.

Brain and Sense-Organs.- In the higher Reptilia the cerebrum attains a comparatively larger size than in the lower forms, while the cerebellum also attains a relatively higher development as we proceed upward. The cerebellum has no lateral lobes nor pons, while the corpora bigemina and thalami are of large size. The senses are developed in tolerable perfection. The nasal cavities are of large size and open into the mouth through either the anterior or posterior part of the palate. In the Crocodilia the hinder nostrils open very far back in the mouth, enabling these animals to hold their prey under water in their mouths, and so to drown it, while their own respiration is carried on unimpeded through the nostrils. The eyes are usually of small size, and exhibit variations in structure and in the disposition of the protective coverings. Thus in snakes the eye-ball in front is covered by a transparent lid, formed by a layer of the skin, which is attached to a circle of surrounding scales, and is shed periodically,

with the outer skin. In snakes the pupil of the eye is round. In the lizards movable and ordinary eyelids exist, while the turtles possess a nictitating membrane. In lizards and snakes the sclerotic coat of the eye is strengthened by a circle of bony plates, such as also occur in several extinct reptilian forms and in birds. In the chameleons the single eyelid is formed by the united lids, and through an opening in this circular lid the rays of light enter the pupil of the eye within. The tympanum of the ear is imperfectly developed in Ophidia, and no eustachian tube exists. In lizards the tympanic apparatus is better developed, while in chelonians the tympanic cavity is large and complicated, and a rudimentary cochlea exists. The Crocodilia possess a movable valve, by means of which the tympanic canal of each ear can be closed at will; and most of the structures found in the ear of higher Vertebrata are represented in greater or less structural detail and perfection.

Viscera. The kidneys are generally placed far back and deep within the pelvic cavity. In the serpents, however, the kidneys are situated anteriorly, and are unsymmetrically placed, the right being higher up and in advance of the left kidney; they also are divided into small lobes. No urinary bladder exists, and the urine of the lizards is fluid; that of the serpents resemble the excrement of birds in being pasty and crystalline. In Crocodilia the testes are elongated, and placed in front of the kidneys. The penis in Crocodilia is single, grooved and contained within a special cloacal fold; in Ophidia two lateral penes exist, and these are hollow and evertible; a double penis exists in lizards, while that of turtles is single.

The eggs are generally of relatively large size, and provided with a thick parchment-like shell and a large yolk. In many instances the eggs may be deposited in sand and hatched by the sun's heat.

Distribution. With regard to the distribution in space of reptiles, the warm or tropical regions of the earth contain these animals not only in greatest number, but in most typical form and variety. During winter or in the colder seasons of the year, most reptiles hibernate and many desert species also pass into a summer sleep. Reptiles are varied in their habits, most of them being terrestrial, but many arboreal and some, including the great majority of the turtles, are aquatic. While most are strictly carnivorous or insectivorous, some subsist on a general diet and a few are purely vegetarian. Many of the extinct forms fed exclusively on fishes. Reptiles exhibit many interesting habits, but, owing to a popular prejudice against them and the tax on the patience of the observer resulting from their inactivity and secretiveness, they have been comparatively little studied.

Classification.- Because of certain resemblances in form and manners, all of the early zoologists, to and including Cuvier, classed the Reptilia and Amphibia together, and it was only when embryological data began to play an important part in taxonomy that their dissimilarity was perceived. Milne-Edwards and his contemporaries toward the middle of the 19th century were the first to recognize this in a scheme of classification. In 1860-70 when

zoologists were still working under the fresh stimulus of the publication of the 'Origin of Species, Huxley, Haeckel and Cope almost simultaneously perceived much more clearly than had any of their predecessors the close relationship and probable community of descent of birds and reptiles. Reptilian life played a much more important rôle in past ages of the earth than now, that it is not surprising that we must turn to palæontologists for nearly all of the recent advances in the classification of the groups. The scheme and nomenclature mainly followed in this work is that elaborated by Gadow in Vol. VIII of the Cambridge Natural History.'

CLASS REPTILIA.

Subclass Proreptilia.

Subclass Prosauria. Orders: Microsauri, Prosauri (Rhynchocephalia, etc.). Subclass Theromorpha. Orders: Pareiasauri, Theriodontia, Placodontia, Anomodontia. Subclass Chelonia (Turtles). Orders: Atheca, Thecophora.

Subclass Dinosauria (Dinosaurs). Orders: Sauropoda, Theropoda, Orthopoda, Ceratopsia. Subclass Crocodilia (Crocodilians). Orders: Pseudosuchia, Parasuchia, Eusuchia.

Subclass Plesiosauria. Orders: Nothosauri, Plesiosauri.

Subclass Ichthyosauria. Orders: Ichthyosauri (Fish-lizards).

Subclass Pterosauria (Flying Reptiles). Order: Pterosauri (Pterodactyls).

Subclass Pythonomorpha, Orders: Dolichosauri, Mosasauri. Subclass Sauria. Orders: Lacetilia (Lizards); Ophidia (Serpents).

A more elaborate scheme, but one which more correctly expresses the natural relationships of the orders, has been developed by Cope, Baur and Osborn.

The vast majority of reptilian types have become extinct. Only four orders are represented in our modern fauna, and one of these, the Rhynchocephalia, by only a single species, the New Zealand tuatera. The Crocodilia have greatly declined in variety of forms since the close of the Mesozoic Age. The Pythonomorpha have become extinct, but lizards and snakes are represented in the saurian orders by a great number of species and are the only dominant reptilian types. Reptiles flourished especially during the Mesozoic Age, to which four of the most remarkable groups were confined, the great marine reptiles (Plesiosauria and Ichthyosauria), the huge and often remarkably modified terrestrial Dinosauria and the equally wonderful flying Pterosauria. epoch, when the seas were shrinking and dry land increasing in extent, but when the atmosphere was heavy with moisture and carbonicacid gas, unfitted for the respiration of high types of life, was well suited for the development of the sluggish reptiles; and they were dominant on land and sea, replacing on the one hand the amphibians and on the other the primitive types of fishes of earlier ages. With the close of the Age of Reptiles and the advent of the Eocene Period, mammals quickly rose to full dominance on the land and many orders of reptiles, having played their parts in the evolution of life, disappeared forever. Reptiles

This