this point is 506 feet above sea-level tide-water. The Barge Canal passes through the city about three miles to the south of the old canal and has a commodious harbor in conjunction with the Genesee River. The river is dammed for this purpose a little south of the Court Street Bridge.

Parks.-The Rochester park commission was created in 1888, since when work has been done so judiciously by the aid of the best landscape architects and nurserymen, taking advantage of the rolling lands that were obtainable, that few cities present so attractive an appearance in this regard. The total area of park territory is 1,649 acres, and the five largest parks, in their order, are Durand-Eastman, Genesee Valley, Seneca, Maplewood and Highland. Highland Park contains one of the finest arboretums in the country, and DurandEastman Park is located on Lake Ontario, and has the advantages of forest, field and stream.

Public Buildings.-There are four wellequipped hospitals, the General, Saint Mary's, Homœopathic and Hahnemann; a Municipal Hospital for contagious diseases, Iola Sanitarium for tubercular patients, Infants' Summer Hospital at Lake Ontario, the insane asylum or State Hospital, the County Hospital for free patients and a splendidly equipped dental dispensary, the gift of some of Rochester's publicspirited citizens. There are numerous hotels, many of them new and modern, of which the largest are the Powers, Rochester, Seneca, Whitcomb and the Osburn. Of late years, apartment houses have become popular and many have been built or are in process of construction. There are several theatres and motion picture houses, most prominent of which are the Lyceum, Temple, Family, Fay, Gayety, Piccadilly, Regent, Gordon and Rialto.

Newspapers. There are several daily newspapers, the chief of which are Democrat and Chronicle, Herald, Times-Union and the Post-Express, and a large number appearing - less frequently.

Clubs. Of the social clubs the principal are the Genesee Valley, Rochester, Masonic, Whist, Elks, Physicians and University. There are three well-equipped country clubs, the Oak Hill, the Country and the Irondequoit; the first located near Genesee Valley Park, the second about two miles east of the city and the third still farther east. There is also a flourishing women's club, the Century. The Genesee Golf Club is located in Genesee Valley Park and has a large well-equipped clubhouse. The leading literary clubs are the Alembic, Pundit, Fortnightly and the Wednesday Morning.

Manufactures.- Rochester was built up by the milling industry. The quality and amount of wheat grown in the valley during the early days made a demand for flouring mills, which was strengthened by the presence of the high falls, so that those structures sprang up rapidly on both banks of the river and became so numerous that the place was long known as "the Flour City" and its pre-eminence in this respect was recognized throughout the country. The development of the enormous wheat-fields of the West caused a decline in this business, so that its relative position was taken by the nursery industry; this was started here in 1838,

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after which it increased so that in 1904 there were more than 30 firms engaged in the business; besides the nurseries there are several large seedhouses, Rochester being the foremost city in the world in this regard. It is now called "the Flower City." The first trees sent to California went from here in 1849. Rochester is the home of the camera and is often called "the Kodak City." It leads the world in the manufacture of photographic goods and sup plies, soda fountain fruits and syrups, enameled steel tanks, filing devices and office systems, thermometers, optical goods and check protectors. Because of the wide range of articles manufactured, it is known as "the City of Varied Industries" and has adopted as a slogan, "Rochester Made Means Quality," as practically all of the goods manufactured are of the highest grade. Sixty per cent of the carbon paper and typewriter ribbon made in the United States are manufactured in Rochester and the city leads the United States in the manufacture of high class ivory buttons. It is estimated that more than 350 separate commodities are manufactured in Rochester by 1,760 manufacturing establishments. Rochester is one of the largest shoe centres in the United States with 58 factories and an annual output valued at $55,075,000. In the production of clothing, the output in 1918 was valued at $24,000,000 in its 30 clothing factories. Canning of fruit and other foodstuffs is one of the large industries in the city. Although Rochester ranks twenty-fourth in the United States in point of population, it ranks first in the production of many manufac tured articles. It is placed third in the production of clothing and has the same rating in the production of boots and shoes. Its total manufactures are valued at $250,000,000. Receipts at the post office in 1918 were $1,730,115.90. The capital invested in manufactures is estimated at $150,000,000 and the total employees in factories is estimated at 125,000. The salaries and wages paid annually approximate $50,000,000. The assessed valuation of property in the city in 1919 was $286,455,240. The tax levy for 1919 is $6,886,165, making a tax rate of $24.065 per thousand.

Banking and Commerce.-A most important factor in the commercial and civic life is the Chamber of Commerce, organized in 1888, which now has a membership of 3,300. It is magnificently housed in its own building constructed especially for its use and all of which it occupies. There are 16 banks, including four savings banks, the capital and surplus of which, 1 Jan. 1918, was $21,000,000 and the deposits $208,000,000. The clearings for the last six months of 1918 were $188,449,976.

Education. The Rochester Athenæum and Mechanics Institute - generally known by the latter part of its title was founded in 1885 as a free drawing school and has so expanded that it now gives instruction in practical arts and sciences to about 1,850 pupils and ranks fourth among the technical trade schools of the country. The University of Rochester, founded in 1850 and located in beautiful grounds in the eastern part of the city, has a faculty of 46 instructors, with 535 students, and a library of 76,800 volumes. There are also the Rochester Theological Seminary, of the Baptist denomination, founded in the same year, with a present faculty of 17, over 100 students and 42,900 books; Saint Ber

nard's Theological Seminary, occupying capacious grounds north of the city, started in 1893, having now 13 professors, 225 students and over 15,000 volumes. The public school system, under the control of a board of education of seven members, is among the best in the country. It maintains 47 buildings with as many principals and during 1918 there were 1,250 teachers with 39,750 registered pupils. The expenditures of the board for 1918 were $2,301,867.44. There are four high schools, East High, West High, Washington Junior High and Charlotte High. There are also 32 parochial schools and many private ones, including four academies, two of them for girls and two for boys, and one large institution for the instruction of deaf-mutes. The Rochester Public Library operates six branches comprising 75,000 volumes in all; also the Reynolds Public Library with 55,800 volumes, mainly books for reference and consultation.

Churches and Charities. There are 155 churches in Rochester. The first congregation (Presbyterian) was formed in 1815; the Roman Catholic diocese of Rochester was created in 1868. Of the seven cemeteries the oldest is Mount Hope, opened in 1838, remarkable for its natural beauty, owing to the undulations of the ground in every direction. There are five orphan asylums, three of which are under Catholic control, one under Jewish. In 1822 the Female Charitable Society was organized, from which has risen the kindred institutions of to-day, including, besides the hospitals and asylums, the Industrial School, the Home for the Friendless, the Humane Society, the Children's Aid Society, the Society for the Organization of Charity and a host of other associations for relieving distress, the most of which are connected, more or less directly, with the various churches.

Public Service. In 1873 the Holly system of waterworks was introduced for fire protection. In the same year pipes were laid to Hemlock Lake, 28 miles away, by which water that is unsurpassed, possibly unequaled in its purity by any other city in the United States, is obtained for drinking and other purposes; 39,500,000 gallons are delivered daily through conduits; there are within the city limits 452.5 miles of distributing mains, and 5,711 hydrants; the total cost of the works was $12,926,907.19. The street cleaning is done by many watercarts, instead of by the unsanitary means of dust-raising brooms. It is probably owing, partly, to the agencies just described that Rochester is one of the healthiest cities of the Union, the annual death rate during five years averaging 14 to the 1,000. The police force consists of 407 uniformed men; the fire department has 402 men with 17 steamers, 23 hose carts, 10 truck companies and two water towers, and one protective volunteer company. The meteorological records of the 33 years show that the mean annual temperature was 47.3°, and the mean maximum 55.4°; the mean minimum 39.2°, the absolute maximum 99°; the absolute minimum 14° below zero; the mean annual precipitation 34.5 inches, the average number of clear days annually 83, partly cloudy 126, cloudy 156.

Rochester has always been free from overwhelming calamities. The worst two disasters, financially, in its history, in neither of which was a single life lost, were the great flood of 17

March 1865, when much of the city was under water for two days, doing a million dollars worth of damage; and the fire of 26 Feb. 1904, which devastated a large portion of the drygoods district and inflicted a loss of $3,000,000. Rochester has a well-supplied electric street car system with 144 miles of track, besides interurban lines that run in every direction. There are two telephone systems in the city, one a home enterprise.

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History. In 1789 a sawmill and gristmill were built on the west bank of the river by Ebenezer Allan-commonly called "Indian Allan from his lifelong association with the savages who received, as compensation for the work, from Phelps and Gorham, the owners of the land, 100 acres surrounding those pioneer structures. Though no settlement was made at the time, that tract became the nucleus of the future city. In 1803 it was bought by Col. Nathaniel Rochester, Col. William Fitzhugh and Maj. Charles Carroll, all of Maryland, for $17.50 per acre. Some scattered dwellings were built in the vicinity within the next few years, but no house was erected in what was then called Rochester, after the first-named proprietor, until 1812, when a log cabin was built on the_spot that has ever since been known as the Four Corners. Other residences soon went up, in one of which the first white child was born 2 Dec. 1814. Settlers from the New England States came pouring in and when the first census was taken in December 1815, the population was shown to be 331. In 1817 it was incorporated as a village, under the name of Rochesterville, but in 1822 the title was changed to Rochester. In 1823 the size of the village was augmented by taking in a part of the town of Brighton, on the east side of the river, and subsequent additions have so increased the area that it now embraces over 20,900 acres, with 401 miles of open streets, 290 miles of which are improved, with 380.2 miles of sewers. It was incorporated as a city in 1834, the first mayor being Jonathan Child. Rochester was the birthplace of modern Spiritualism, the famous Fox sisters having given here, in 1849, the first manifestations of mysterious rappings, which speedily became known as the "Rochester knockings." During slavery times, Rochester was one of the centres of the abolition movement and one of the principal stations of the "underground railroad." It was the home of Frederick Douglass (q.v.), the celebrated negro orator, and was the place in which William H. Seward (q.v.) in 1858 uttered in a public address his memorable phrase in speaking of the struggle between freedom and slavery as an "irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces."

The government is vested in a mayor and common council, elected for two years, under a charter of 1908. A comptroller, police justice, assessors, aldermen, school commissioners, etc., are chosen by the people. The city budget is about $6,200,000 yearly.

The

Population. In 1910 Rochester ranked 24 in the list of cities in the United States. population in 1820 was 1,502; (1825) 5,273; (1834) 12,252; (1880) 89,363; (1890) 162,608; (1910) 218,149; (1915) 248,465. This shows an increase between 1890 and 1900 of 21 per cent, and between 1900 and 1910 of 34 per cent. The population in 1919 is estimated at 270,000.

Bibliography.-Anstice, 'Centennial Annals of St. Luke's Church, Rochester, N. Y., 18171917) (1917); Bragdon, 'Notable Men of Rochester and Vicinity) (1902); 'Biographical Record of Rochester and Monroe County, N. Y. (1902); Bureau of Municipal Research, New York City, Government of the City of Rochester, N. Y. (1915); Common Good of Civic and Social Rochester' (1910-14); Devoy, A History of Rochester

With a Record of the Post-Express (1895); Early History of Rochester (1860); Fitch, 'Sketches of the City of Rochester' in Larned's History of Buffalo' (1911); Matthews, Fire Service of Rochester' (1888); O'Reilly, Sketches of Rochester) (1838); Foreman, Edward R., 'Municipal Code of the City of Rochester' (2 vols., 1904-07); (Hopkins, C. M., 'City Atlas of Rochester, N. Y. (1910); Kelsey, John, 'Lives and Reminiscences of the Pioneers of Rochester and Western New York' (1854); Parker, 'Rochester: A Story Historical' (1884); Parsons, History of Rochester Presbytery) (1871); Peck, History of Rochester and Monroe County, N. Y (1908); id., History of the Police Department of Rochester' (1903); id., Landmarks of Monroe County) (1895); id., 'Semi-centennial History of the City of Rochester' (1884); 'Art Work of Rochester) (1896); Robinson, First Church Chronicles, 1815-1915) (1915); Rochester Park Commissioners, Public Parks of the City of Rochester, 1888-1904' (1904) Strong, Reminiscences of Early Rochester' (1916); Ward, 'Churches of Rochester' (1871); Union and Advertiser Year Book' (1888-1916); Annual Reports Rochester Chamber of Commerce) (1888-1918).

HOWARD STRONG,

Secretary, Rochester Chamber of Commerce. ROCHESTER, Pa., borough in Beaver County, at the junction of the Ohio and Beaver rivers, and on the branches of the Pennsylvania Railroad, about 25 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. It is connected by electric lines with Beaver, Beaver Falls, New Brighton and other nearby places. A bridge across Beaver River connects the borough with Bridgewater, and one across the Ohio connects the town with Monaca. It is in the coal and oil region, and in the vicinity are deposits of fireclay and buildingstone quarries. The chief manufactures are flour, lumber, brick, glassware, foundry products, mining tools, structural iron and oil-well supplies. The principal public buildings are the churches, schools and Masonic Temple. Pop. 5,903.

ROCHESTER, University of. See UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER,

ROCHESTER PLAN OF EDUCATION. See RETARDATION OF PUPILS.

ROCHESTER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, founded at Rochester in 1850 by the New York Baptist Union for Ministerial Education. As early as 1847 an attempt was made to remove Madison (now Colgate) University from Hamilton to Rochester, but this was opposed by the Baptists of Hamilton and legal obstacles were found, so that the plan was abandoned. The University of Rochester (q.v.) was established at the same time by the Baptists, and for a time the two institutions occupied the same buildings, but there has never

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been any organic connection between the university and the seminary, the latter being essentially a professional school. The regular course is three years; instruction is given in the departments of Hebrew language and literature (Old Testament), theology, church history, New Testament, homiletics and pastoral theology, elocution, English Bible and Christian ethics. Graduation from college or preparation in Greek sufficient for the study of the Greek Testament is required for admission; formerly there was an English course for those who had no classical training; this was abandoned in 1889-90. In 1852 a German department was organized; the course is literary as well as theological and covers six years. The seminary was at first without endowment, and at the end of 10 years had only $75,000; in 1917 the productive funds amounted to $1,814,000. The library is one of value, including the whole collection of Neander, the German church historian, and numbering 45,000 volumes. The total number of students was 152 in 1917.

ROCHET, a lawn or linen lace garment, somewhat like the surplice in shape, but with close-fitting sleeves or sleeveless, worn by bishops, abbots, prelates and other ecclesiastical dignitaries. Also a ceremonial robe formerly worn by British peers.

ROCHETTE, Désiré Raoul, dā-zē-rā rāool rō-shět, French archæologist: b. Saint-Armand, France, 9 March 1790; d. Paris, France, 3 July 1854. He was educated at Bourges, removed to Paris in 1811, in 1815 became assistant professor to Guizot, whom he afterward succeeded in the chair of history at the Sorbonne. In 1826 he became professor of archæology at Paris, and in 1838 was elected permanent secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts. He gained a wide reputation for learning, was popular as a lecturer and enjoyed high favor after the Restoration. Besides his unfinished history of ancient art he wrote 'Antiquités du Bosphore Cimmerien' (1822); Tableau des Catacombs du Rome' (1837); 'Lettres archéologiques sur la Peinture des Grecs (1840); 'Mémoire sur l'Acropole d'Athènes' (1845); 'Mémoires d'Archéologie comparée Asiatique, Grecque, et Etrusque' (incomplete, 1848), etc. ROCK-BASS. See BASS. ROCK-BRAKE.

ALLIES.

See FERNS AND FERN

ROCK BREAKING. See GOLD MINING. ROCK CLEAVAGE, a tendency that many rocks have to part more easily along certain parallel directions than in other directions. If this tendency was imparted to the rock at the time of formation it is called primary or original cleavage. Bedding is the usual type of primary cleavage. If the tendency is imparted after the rock has been formed it is called secondary or induced cleavage. Such cleavage is produced by pressure and is usually not parallel to the original bedding planes. If the tendency to part results from many closely spaced fractures it is called fracture cleavage. Frequently, however, there is no actual fracture, but the weakness comes from the arrangement of the mineral particles in parallel directions. This can often be plainly seen in schists which split parallel to the numerous mica plates. This latter type is called flow cleavage. It is well