to study Latin and they may elect Greek; in the second section particular emphasis is put upon the study of French and the sciences; Latin and Greek are not offered. Electives are offered in the second and third years of the second cycle. In one course Greek and Latin are continued. In a second course Latin and either English or German are studied. In a third course the sciences and modern languages predominate, and but little Latin is offered. In the fourth no Latin is offered; emphasis is put upon the sciences and upon modern languages.

At the end of the second cycle the pupil presents himself for the first part of the baccalaureate degree. He must be at least 16 years of age. An additional year is then given to preparation for the second part of the degree. This degree is a sufficient passport for entering the higher schools.

The secondary schools of France are called lycées. In some communes institutions called colleges are maintained. These are usually of a lower grade than the lycées and are financed by the communes. All private secondary schools are subject to State inspection.

6-7. 7-8.

The lycées for girls usually have courses of five or six years.

S-9..

9-10.

10-11.

11-12.

12-13..

13-14..

14-15.

15-16.. 16-17. 17-18..

The following table indicates the average number of periods per week allotted to the study of mathematics in each type of secondary school:

In Germany centralization of educational authority is not carried to so high a degree as in France. Each of the German States is independent in all local affairs, and the educational system is characterized by flexibility rather than rigidity.

In the United States a pupil may enter the elementary school and continue his course through the university. The "educational ladder" is unbroken. In Germany there are two distinct systems, the lower or elementary school and the higher school system. After a pupil has passed his fourth school year it is almost impossible to transfer from one to the other. Elementary education is usually based on State laws; secondary education is usually regulated by ordinances of a local character.

In the United States the direction of the internal organization of the schools rests with the local communities. In Germany it is in the hands of the various States. The official to whom is delegated the highest authority in educational affairs always has some other State duties. In Prussia the highest official in education is the minister of public worship and education; in Bavaria he is the minister of the interior, of public worship and education; in Wurttemberg he is the minister of ecclesiastical and school affairs.

The various subdivisions of the schools are under the immediate direction of subordinate ministers and of directors and school councils. All of these authorities are State officials. The community looks after the external administration of the school, such as the erection, equipment, and sanitation of buildings. In some of the large city systems a school superintendent is appointed as professional advisor. The appointment of all teachers must be confirmed by the State.

Education is compulsory from the sixth to the fourteenth year (sixth to the thirteenth year in Wurttemberg), and there are practically no illiterates in Germany.

The elementary schools are called Volksschulen, and are all free. The majority of the teachers are men, but the percentage of women is steadily increasing. Most of the Volksschulen have an eight-year course. The school day consists of four or five periods. It begins at 7 or 8 in summer and at 8 or 9 in winter. The number of classes depends upon the size of the school. All Volksschulen must conform to certain minimum requirements prescribed by the State.

Most of the German States make a special provision in the elementary schools for the education of backward and of exceptionally gifted children. The schools are divided not only vertically, but horizontally. The brighter children have a richer curriculum, usually including a foreign language. Normal pupils require eight years to complete the course in the Volksschule. Very able pupils, after two years' attendance, are put into special classes which prepare them for the Gymnasium in one and one-half instead of two years. For backward pupils, courses of from 7 to 10 years are offered.

The middle schools of Germany are called Mittelschulen, higher elementary schools, or Bürgerschulen. They are intermediate between the lower elementary and the secondary school from the point of view of courses offered. Attendance at these schools is not a prerequisite for admission to the secondary schools. Mittelschulen are especially common in the States of southern Germany. Some of these are for boys, some for girls, and some are attended by both boys and girls. The course is usually nine years in length, and the lower grades overlap the primary school. The curricula in these schools are adapted as far as possible to local and individual needs. The schools are largely utilitarian in aim. Usually not more than one foreign language is studied, but exceptional pupils may study a second foreign language after the seventh year.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

The public secondary schools are almost all undenominational or interdenominational. The elementary schools are usually denominational, except in Baden and Hesse, and the Volksschulen in some of the cities.

Separate schools are usually maintained for boys and girls, except in Wurttemburg, Baden, and Hesse, where mixed classes are common. In all of the States, mixed classes are found in the small schools in rural communities. Most of the secondary schools for boys are public, and many of those for girls are private. The maintenance of the elementary school usually falls upon the community. Cities and towns maintain their own secondary schools. There is a tendency to provide more liberally for public secondary education for girls.

A few secondary schools have preparatory schools (Vorschulen), but entrance is usually made from the third or fourth grade of the elementary schools. Most of the secondary schools have a nine-year course, but some have a course of six years.

Promotion is by classes, not by subjects. A pupil who fails in two major subjects is not promoted. The maximum size of classes is 50 in the lower stage, 40 in the intermediate, and 30 in the upper.

The school day begins at the same time as in the elementary school and consists of five or six periods of 40 or 50 minutes each.

There are three kinds of higher schools with nine-year courses: (a) Gymnasium, (b) Realgymnasium, (c) Oberrealschule.

The Gymnasium is the classical secondary school. Both Latin and Greek are taught.

In the Realgymnasium no Greek is taught. Latin, the modern languages, and mathematics are emphasized.

In the Oberrealschule Latin and Greek are not taught, but emphasis is placed upon the modern languages and science.

In all three types of schools German, history, religion, and mathematics are taught. The fundamental idea in organizing the Realschule was to prepare for the commercial professions, as the Gymnasium prepares for the learned professions. The curricula in most of the Realschulen have been enlarged to meet the demands for broader culture. After the first three years in a secondary school it is almost impossible for a pupil to transfer to another type of school. This means that parents must decide by the time their children are 9 or 10 years of age which type of school they wish them to enter. In order that this decision, which is almost irrevocable, may be postponed until the child is a few years older, institutions called Reformgymnasia and Realgymnasia have been established. In these schools a common foundation for all three types of secondary schools is laid in the first three years. At the end of this period one section begins the study of English, and emphasis is later put upon the natural sciences (Realschule and Oberrealschule). Another section begins the study of Latin, and two years later this section is subdivided, one division (Gymnasium) beginning the study of Greek and the other section (Realgymnasium) beginning the study of English. This general plan is sometimes called the Frankfort system.

Most of the States now maintain separate high schools for girls. The curricula of these schools are not unlike those of the Realschule, except that less emphasis is placed upon science and mathematics. In the boys' schools all of the teachers are men. In the girls' schools some of the teachers are men.

For a description of the conducting of classes in the various types of schools the reader may consult "Mathematics in the Schools of Prussia," by J. W. A. Young, published by Longmans, Green & Co., New York. See also "The present Teaching of Mathematics in Germany" (Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, New York City), for details in regard to courses in mathematics in the secondary schools of the more important German States.

There are many large cities in Holland, and to a considerable extent they determine the general character of the primary and secondary education. Although complete religious liberty prevails throughout the Kingdom, the various religious denominations exercise great influence in educational matters.

The minister of the interior is in charge of all State administration schools. There are 3 general inspectors and 25 district inspectors, and these have several subordinates. These officials are appointed by the sovereign and are paid by the State.

The local civil authorities, the communal burgomaster, and the council have charge of the local administration of the schools. All needs and conditions are reported to the communal council by the school boards.

The primary school comprises the first six school years. The pupils usually enter at the age of 6. Boys and girls attend the same school and are instructed together. Primary instruction is given in the day schools, the evening schools, and in the continuation schools. Attendance at the day school is obligatory for all children from 7 to 13 years of age.

There are between five and six thousand public day schools in Holland, and almost two thousand private primary schools that have been subsidized by the State.

The primary schools are open all the year except on holidays. Promotion from grade to grade is upon the basis of examinations. A pupil who completes the course in the primary school in a satisfactory manner is given a certificate of honor. The secondary schools may be public or private. There are four general subdivisions: 1. Bürgher schools.

2. Higher Bürgher schools.

3. Industrial, trade, and technical schools.

4. Agricultural schools.

These schools are sometimes called the middle schools, to distinguish them from the Gymnasia.

The immediate supervision of all public secondary schoois is exercised by local committees approved by the minister of the interior, who is sun eme in all matters relating to the secondary schools.

Pupils may enter these schools either by examination or upon presentation of a certificate from the primary school.

The Bürgher schools are especially for the children of the tradesman, mechanic, and the agriculturist. The law requires that such a school must be maintained in every community having a population of more than 10,000.

The Higher Bürgher schools train those who expect to become engineers, architects, and technologists. Those who expect to enter the service of the State also attend

these schools. The diploma admits the pupil without examination to certain of the special higher schools.

The Higher Bürgher schools have two courses, one of five years and the other of three. The tendency is to extend the course to six years. These schools offer especially thorough instruction in the sciences and modern languages. Entrance is by examination. A candidate for admission must be at least 12 years of age. A pupil who successfully completes a course is given a certificate which is of value to him if he seeks a civil or commercial appointment. There are about 100 Higher Bürgher schools in Holland. Both boys and girls may be enrolled in these schools. Only male teachers are employed.

The Higher Bürgher schools offer the majority of the pupils the best opportunity for a good, general secondary education. A graduate of these schools can not enter a university until he has studied one year of Latin and of Greek. In Belgium the sciences and the modern languages are considered as equivalent to the ancient languages in dignity and in importance, but the classical idea still prevails quite largely in Holland.

There are numerous types of industrial and technical schools. The course in these schools varies from one to five years. The Bürgher schools make provision for commercial education. There are several schools of industrial and household arts for girls. Women frequently predominate on the boards in these schools. In all of the technical schools a good deal of attention is devoted to the subject of drawing.

Agricultural education receives a great deal of attention. A special inspector is in charge of the agricultural schools. Most of the schools of this type offer thorough courses in colonial agriculture. A special State inspector has supervision of the agricultural schools.

In addition to the schools mentioned above, every community of 20,000 inhabitants must have a Gymnasium. These prepare especially for the universities. The age of admission is 12 to 13 years, and the candidate for admission must pass an examination in the mother tongue, French, reading, writing, history, and arithmetic. The course is six years in length. There are about 70 Gymnasia in Holland, public and private.

The inspection and examination of the schools is very rigid and effective throughout the country.