been largely increased by private benefactions. A library, free to the public, was established at Aix-en-Provence in 1409. This was partially scattered, but restored in 1705 with the gift by André Tournon of his private collection and 7,000 francs for the establishment of a free public library. The Bibliothèque Municipale of Tours originated in the collections of the abbey of Marmoutiers and other religious foundations of the region. Its earlier collections have suffered losses, but is now one of the largest public libraries in France. Another ancient library of France is that of Caen, William the Conqueror's town, which was founded in 1431. In spite of the vicissitudes of many wars, particularly the religious ones, it has developed into its present collection of 128,000 volumes. It was suppressed in 1701, but reopened in 1736. Cardinal Fleury was one of its most liberal benefactors. The Bibliothèque Municipale of Lille is based like the others upon church collections and must have been established prior to the 14th century as a catalogue of that period is still in existence. It likewise suffered losses during the Revolution, but at the same time was augmented by additions from other monastic collections. Just what it has suffered from the German occupation is yet to be determined. One of the largest municipal libraries to develop from ecclesiastical origins is that of Rouen, which has steadily grown to its present size of 150,000 volumes. It was largely increased in 1855 by the accession of the splendid collection of M. Leber, containing 50,000 choice books and manuscripts. The Bibliothèque Municipale of Troyes was founded in 1651, by the gift of the library of Jacques Hennequin, to the Cordeliers of Troyes, on the condition that the library be opened to the public (135,550 vols.). When the religious orders were supressed this collection, with that of the Oratorians and the remnants of the collection of the famous abbey of Clairvaux, were united to form the municipal library. Many of its treasures have been lost, but rare and precious items still remain, some antedating the death of Charlemagne. Among its collections of particular interest are the autograph works and correspondence of the Port Royal fraternity. The library of Besançon (103,830 vols.), founded by the Abbé Boisot in 1696, contains many manuscripts from the famous library of Cardinal Granvelle which had passed into the hands of the abbey of Saint Vincent and turned over to the city during the Revolution. Douai library (96,186 vols.), founded in 1767 under the auspices of the university, received in 1791 the splendid collection of the Benedictine Community of Marchiennes, which contained 1,718 rare manuscripts. The Bibliothèque Municipale of Bordeaux (200,000 vols.) owes its origin to the bequests of MM. Bel and Cardoze to the Bordeaux Académie des Sciences in 1738. This collection has been generously added to by the city. Among other French libraries of interest may be noted: Rochelle, originating in the collection of the Consistoire Réformé de la Rochelle, 1604 (109,712 vols.); Dijon (125.000 vols.), founded by P. Fevret in 1701; Nancy (142,018 vols.), founded by Stanislas in 1750; Nantes (220,000 vols.), 1753; Nice (60,000 vols.), founded by Abbé Massa in 1786; Nimes (110,000 vols.), founded

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by Jean de Dieu and R. Bion in 1778; Perpignan (35,000 vols.), founded by Maréchal de Mailly in 1759; Rennes (120,000 vols.), 1733; Toulouse (213,000 vols.), founded by the archbishop of Brienne in 1782; Marseilles (124,039 vols.), 1799.

Paris, of course, is richest in libraries of all types. The principal institution is the Bibliothèque Nationale, one of the world's greatest libraries, the importance of which calls for a detailed description. (See special article NATIONAL LIBRARY OF FRANCE). Next in importance to the Bibliothèque Nationale is the Bibliothèque Saint Geneviève, founded by Cardinal de Rochefoucauld in 1642. Originally it was the library of the abbey of Saint Geneviève, which he gathered upon his appointment as abbot. From this small beginning, it developed under the librarianships of Du Molinet, Gillet, Le Courayer, Mercier de Saint Léger, Pingré, Lemonnier and the historian Daunou. It steadily increased until at the outbreak of the Revolution it possessed about 80,000 printed books and 2,000 manuscripts. Two noteworthy collections were added during the 18th century; the splendid collection of Archbishop le Tellier (1716; 45,000 books and manuscripts) and that of the Duke of Orleans in 1791. At the dissolution of the abbey (1791), the library became state property and was renamed the Bibliothèque Panthéon. During the empire it was united with the Lycée Henri IV. The collections of the Bibliothèque Saint Geneviève number at present about 400,000 books, 1,225 incunabula and 3,855 manuscripts. The Bibliothèque Mazarine is of great interest in part owing to its founder, the great cardinal, and in part to the treasures it contains. The famous Gabriel Naudé, the first librarian, opened it to the public in 1642. It was dispersed by the Fronde but reconstituted in 1661, at which time it contained about 40,000 volumes. The collection remained in the Mazarine Palace until 1688 when it was transferred to the Collège de Mazarine. Its collections number about 250,000 volumes, 1,900 incunabula and 4,600 manuscripts. The Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal owes its origin to Antoine d'Argenson, Marquis de Paulmy, who in the midst of a life of greatest activity as a general, statesman and author contrived to gather a private library of approximately 100,000 volumes. At his death in 1789, this was acquired by the Comte d'Artois who united it with the equally splendid collection of the Duc de La Vallière. This collection, in 1858, contained 202,000 volumes and some 6,000 manuscripts. Its collections in 1915 numbered 624,904 volumes and 10,341 manuscripts. It possesses the most complete collection extant of romance literature, of drama, particularly of the period of mystery plays and by early French poetry.

Special Libraries. There are, in all, about 200 libraries in Paris of which many are special collections of great importance. Of these the Bibliothèque des Archives may be mentioned. It was founded by the Daunou in 1808 and contains 30,000 volumes, mainly source material in history. A library similar in nature is that of the Office de Législation Etrangère et de Droit Internationale. Other special libraries are Law: Bibliothèque des Avocate (1704; 65,000 vols.); Bibliothèque de la Faculté de Droit (100,000 vols.); Legislation: Bibliothèque de la

Chambre des Députés (1706; 200,000 vols.); Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818; 140,000 vols.); Medicine: Académie de Médecine (1820; 60,000 vols.); Faculté de Médicine (220,000 vols.); Military and Naval Sciences: Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Guerre, founded by Louvois (135,000 vols.); Bibliothèque et Archives du Ministère de la Marine (1836; 100,000 vols.); Bibliothèque Hydrographique de la Marine (60,000 vols.); Education: Bibliothèque de l'Enseignement Public (80,000 vols.); Science and Technology: Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausées (100,000 vols.); Ecole Polytechnique (50,000 vols.); Ecole Supérieure des Mines (1778; 5,000 vols.); Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle (220,000 vols.); Societé de Statistique (60,000 vols.); Bibliothèque de la Société de Géographie (60,000 vols.); Music, Fine Arts: Bibliothèque d'Art et Archéologie (100,000 vols.); Conservatoire National de Musique (1775; 80,000 vols., 500,000 music manuscripts); Miscellaneous: Ecole Spéciale des Langues Orientales Vivantes (75,000 vols.); Bibliothèque Historique de la Ville de Paris (1872; 24,000 vols.); Institut de France (1795; 550,000 vols.); Bibliothèque Polonaise (1838; 100,000 vols.); Société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme (60,000 vols.).

University Libraries. In comparison with the libraries of some of the provincial universities, that of the Université de Paris, or the Bibliothèque de la Sorbonne (600,000 vols.), is of relatively recent birth, having been founded in 1762. Next to the Bibliothèque Nationale it is the richest in special collections and source material. In 1897 it was housed in the buildings of the New Sorbonne, even then inadequate for its collections. Many of the provincial university libraries date from the mediæval foundations of their schools. Thus the Bibliothèque Universitaire, Aix-en-Provence (85,000 vols., 63,000 theses) was established in 1409, that of the University of Bordeaux (107,000 vols., 174,400 theses) in 1441. More recent foundations are the University of Grenoble (1879; 175,000 vols.); Lille (407,000 vols., 194,000 theses); Lyon (137,352 vols., 117,000 theses); Montpellier (126,399 vols., 127,000 theses); Nancy (107,254 vols., 106,000 theses); Poitiers (114,000 vols., 170,000 theses); Rennes (1733; 193,000 vols., 68,000 theses); Toulouse (1879; 140,000 vols.).

Prior to the 20th century France was perhaps better supplied with excellent collections of books than other countries. Her institutions have tended to cling to old methods, hence the modern movement that has transformed bibliographic systems in the United States and England has been but slowly accepted there. În 1906, however, the Minister of Public Instruction appointed a committee to study the condition of the archives and libraries of France which presented a report recommending radical reforms in methods, and a more liberal treatment of libraries and their personnel in income and scholarly recognition. At this time, also, a national library association was founded and a periodical started which might serve as an organ of intercommunication between librarians. There is every reason for believing that this movement will prove as wholesome for library conditions in France as the similar ones in Great Britain and America. Consult Marcel, H., and others, 'Bibliothèque Nationale'

(2 vols., Paris 1907): Franklin, 'Guides des savants, des littérateurs, etc., de Paris' (Paris 1908); Le Prince, Essai historique sur la Bibliothèque du Roi, aujourd'hui Bibliothèque Impèriale (Paris 1856); Martin, 'Histoire de la Bibliothèque de l'Arsénal (Paris 1899); Morel, 'Le Développement des Bibliothèques publiques' (Paris 1899); Mortreuil, 'La Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris 1878); Pécheur, 'Histoire des bibliothèques publiques du Départment de l'Aisne (Soissons 1884); SaintAlbin, Les bibliothèques municipales de la Ville de Paris' (Paris 1896); Supercaze, 'Les bibliothèques populaires, scholaires et pédagogiques (Paris 1892).

GERMAN EMPIRE.

The German Empire has a great number of large libraries. This is due in the main to the existence of the many separate states that form the empire, the rulers of which have encouraged the formation of libraries in their capital cities. The interest, likewise, taken by the Germans in popular education and in scholarship has had its effect also. Hence, while Germany has no individual collections that compare with the Bibliothèque Nationale or the British Museum, it has a dozen that exceed 500,000 volumes in size. Four classes of libraries may be distinguished in Germany, the Hof or Royal, the Stadt or Municipal, the university and the popular libraries, or Volk-bibliotheken.

In origin the German libraries, like the French, may be traced to three movements: (1) The medieval or ecclesiastic foundations; (2) the humanistic or university; (3) the modern. As in France, it has been the privilege of the last period to gather together and organize the material that has been saved from the earlier collections. For this reason many of the German libraries assign their foundations as early as the 14th and 15 centuries. The suppression of the religious orders during and after the Reformation resulted in the liberation of many collections of books, some of great interest, and, while many valuable items were lost, a large proportion was saved as is evidenced by the splendid collections of manuscripts and early printed books in the various libraries.

Germany has produced many librarians and bibliographers of distinction, among whom may be noted Lipsius, Pertz, Panzer, Halm, Petzholdt, Heyne, Ritschl, Hain, Jahn, Forstman: and Dziatzko. The modern library movement, owing to the early efficiency and completeness of Germany's early library system, did not develop in that country until the beginning of the present century. While an excellent library journal, Zentralblatt fur Bibliotekswesen, has been in existence since 1884, no national association of librarians was formed prior to 1889. During the last decade legislation has been enacted in Prussia and Bavaria providing for more careful attention to the development of libraries and for raising the standard of librarianship, it being enacted in 1904 that librarians should be university graduates and candidates for the doctorate, and in 1907 a director of library affairs, under the Minister of Education, was established.

The Königl. Bibliothek at Berlin (1661) is not only the greatest library in Prussia, but, in a sense, fills the rôle of the national library of

the German Empire. It is one of the 10 greatest libraries in the world, containing now about 1,500,000 volumes, 5,000 incunabula and 42,000 manuscripts. Its founder was the Elector of Brandenburg, Friedrich Wilhelm, who formed a collection in his palace in 1650, consisting mainly of spoils from monasteries destroyed during the religious wars. In 1699 the copy privilege was assigned, but no large additions were made either during the reigns of Friedrich Wilhelm I and Frederick the Great. The predilection of the latter for French literature, however, indirectly benefited the Royal Library, for he immediately turned over to it every book in the German language that came into his possession. Under Friedrich Wilhelm III many large additions were made. The library possesses important special collections, among which may be noted German history and literature, philology, the sciences and a splendid collection of incunabula. Its collections were housed for more than a century in an imposing but sombre building erected by the command of Frederick the Great during the years 1775-80. A new and more commodious building was erected in 1909.

The Königl. Hof-u. Staatsbibliothek, the Royal Library of Bavaria at Munich, has long been recognized as a model institution. It was founded during the reign of Gross-Herzog Albrecht V during the years 1550-79, its nucleus being the private library of the ruler. A building was erected for it in 1575 and the collections have gradually increased until it possessed about 20,000 volumes at the beginning of the 16th century. It suffered losses during the Thirty Years' War, but gained in the end, for a number of valuable collections, such as that of Gross-Herzog Christopher of Württemberg and the library of Tübingen, came to it as spoils of battle. All previous accessions, however, were overshadowed by the expansion under Maximilian Joseph resulting from the suppression of religious institutions, 150 of which were closed in 1803. Vast collections came from the Jesuits' College at Ebersberg, the Benedictine abbey of Saint Emmeran, Ratisbon and other monasteries of the same order; the canonries of Saint Udalrich, Saint Afra, and from libraries at Mannheim and Bamberg. Ludwig I was equally generous and during his reign many important special collections were received, such as those of von Moll and K. F. Neumann. He built the splendid palace on Ludwigstrasse, which houses the collections, the library being reorganized and reclassified when installed. The collections number about 1,200,000 volumes, 50,000 manuscripts and are particularly rich in Hebrew literature and Orientalia.

The Royal Library of Saxony, at Dresden, was founded by Elector Augustus in 1556, who established a collection in his palace, Castle Annaburg. In 1595 it contained 5,668 volumes. Its greatest expansion was experienced under Friedrich Augustus II, the second founder of the library. He installed it in a new home, adding a number of valuable collections such as those of von Besser and Maurice of Saxe. Under Friedrich Augustus III it took first rank, due mainly to the efforts of Prince Xavier, guardian of the young prince. Two vast collections were added; the Bünau (43,000 vols.) and the Brühl (62,000 vols.). In 1800 the col

lections numbered 200,000 volumes, in 1850 300,000 volumes, and at present it contains about 600,000 volumes and 6,000 manuscripts. It is particularly rich in German history, literature and the fine arts.

Among the other royal libraries may be mentioned Königl. Landesbibliothek of Stuttgart (603,186 vols.), opened to the public in 1777, containing at that time 6,000 volumes and 4,000 manuscripts from the palace collections at Ludwigsburg. It contains many of the books from the private library of the famous French scholar De Thou which were purchased when his library was dispersed. It is also famous for its collection of editions of the Bible. The Hertzogl. B. of Wolftenbüttel (300,000 vols.), founded by Julius, Duke of Braunsweig-Luneburg, in 1558, was a large collection at the beginning of the 18th century. The poet Lessing at one time was librarian and among its patrons was the philosopher Leibnitz, many of whose papers, however, are in the Königl. u. Provinzial-Bibliothek at Hanover (211,200 vols.), founded by Duke Johann Friedrich in 1660; Gotha, Öffentliche B. des Herzogl. Hauses, founded 1646 by Ernest I of Saxony, has been developed by the reigning sovereigns (25,000 vols. in 1723; 150,000 in 1858; 205,638 in 1912 and 7,655 manuscripts). The Grossherzogl. Hof-B. at Darmstadt (564,512 vols.) was founded in 1670 by Ludwig I, but based upon the collections of the Landgrave Ludwig VI. It contains manuscripts from Cologne Cathedral. Saxe Weimar has long been a centre of art and literature, its rulers encouraging all things that would foster learning. Hence the Grossherzoglich Bibliothek (300,000 vols.) is large and most interesting. It was founded in 1700 by Duke Wilhelm Ernest, who gathered all of the books of his predecessors together into one collection. During the 18th century it was accounted the best library in Germany. It contains a fine collection of military litera

ture.

Municipal Libraries. One of the most interesting and perhaps oldest of the German stadt or town libraries is that of Nürnberg, founded in 1445 by Dr. Konrad Kühnhofer, who presented his private collection to the city. To this has been added many valuable collections, notably that of Jerome Paumgärtner, the friend of Luther. It also contains monastic books, the manuscripts of Hans Sachs and of Dürer, and many rarities greatly treasured by the city. The collections, numbering about 112,000 volumes and 2,550 manuscripts, are housed in the ancient monastic building of the Dominicans. The Staats-Kreis.-u.-Stadtbibliothek of Augsburg was founded in 1537, its collections originally having been monastic. In 1806, when the city of Augsburg was ceded to Bavaria, the greater part of its library was transferred to Munich. Steps were soon taken to rebuild it and books were gathered from the convents and monasteries to that end. These amounted to 42,791 volumes, which were formed into a Kreisbibliothek. The collections number (1912) 205,000 volumes, 2,300 manuscripts. Hamburg contains a number of excellent libraries, of which the most important is the Stadtbibliothek, founded in 1529. This contains about 418,000 volumes, 917 incunabula, 8,000 manuscripts. Frankfort-on-Main also is well supplied with libraries, possessing four of more

than 50,000 volumes each. The Stadtbibliothek, founded in 1668, is the largest, containing approximately 370,000 volumes. The Königl. Öffentliche B. of Bamberg (1611) contains splendid collections, being particularly rich in examples of early printing, the majority coming from the libraries of suppressed religious institutions. It is housed in the building of the former Jesuits' college. Among the other public libraries in Germany, too numerous to be discussed, may be noted those of Berlin (124,866 vols.); Lübeck (1620.; 129,056 vols.); Mainz (1803; 235,000 vols.); Bremen (1660; 148,837 vols.); Breslau (185,000 vols.); Cassel (1580; 250,000 vols.); Cologne (1602; 255,000 vols.); Danzig (1591; 167,000 vols.); Treves (1803; 100,000 vols.); Weisbaden (1813; 172,211 vols.). Leipzig, the centre of German publishing activities, is also the home of a number of excellent libraries, among which may be noted the Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts (1870; 170,000 vols.), the Pädegogische Zentralbibliothek (1872; 190,000 vols.) and the Universitäts-B. (1543; 610,000 vols.). The Stadtbibliothek originated in a bequest of Hulderich Gross in 1677. It contains many valuable collections, among them that of Prof. H. L. Pölitz, the historian, bequeathed in 1838.

University Libraries. The universities have played an extraordinary rôle in the development of modern Germany. This has been due in part to their large and wellequipped libraries and to the German research methods which enforce constant reference to their collections. The oldest German university library is probably that of Heidelberg, founded in 1386. Its modern development, however, dates from the purchase of the private library of the scholar Grævius by the Elector Palatine Johann Wilhelm, in 1707, who incorporated with it the remnant of the ancient library. Other collections were received from dissolved monasteries and other sources, and by careful purchases, until it comprehends at present 500,000 volumes, 200,000 theses and 3,530 manuscripts.

Its

The University of Halle (Friedrichs-Universität Halle-Wittenberg) possesses an exceptionally well-organized library, rich in early printed books and research literature. foundation was laid in the purchase of the library of Prof. J. G. Simon in 1696, by duplicates from Berlin and the collections of Bergen Convent. The merging of the University of Wittenberg with Halle in 1816 resulted in another large increase. The collections now number about 300,000 volumes and 2,016 manuscripts. Another admirably equipped library is that of the University of Göttingen, founded by George II in 1734. The famous bibliographer Heyne was librarian for 50 years, and to this fact is due the completeness of its collections and their excellent catalogues. Heyne's successors were equally devoted. The library contains many valuable special collections, among them those of the historian Heeren, of von Bülow, Uffenbach and J. C. Jahn. The library is particularly rich in philology, history and science, and contains about 619,102 volumes and 6,940 manuscripts. The united Royal and University Library of Königsberg was founded by the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, 1st Duke of Prussia, in 1534. The library at first was called the Schlossbibliothek.

It

numbers some 318,000 volumes and 1,500 manuscripts.

The Jena University Library (270,000 vols.) was founded by the transfer of books from Wittenberg in 1548. The Grand Duke Karl Augustus of Saxe-Weimar was a patron of it and Goethe took great interest in its development. Another splendidly equipped university library is that of Leipzig, containing some 610,000 volumes and 6,500 manuscripts. It was formed out of monastic collections in 1543 and is particularly rich in history, the sciences and classics. Among other university libraries of Germany may be noted Erlangen (254,083 vols.), formed by the Margrave Friedrich, in 1743, out of the collections of the margraves of Anspach and dissolved monasteries; Breslau (402,767 vols.), founded in 1811 from earlier collections and from the library of the former University of Frankforton-Main; Bonn (376,800 vols.), founded 1818 by the purchase of the collections of Prof. C. G. Harless and those of the former University of Duisburg; Marburg (265,000 vols.), founded in 1527 by Philip, Landgrave of Hesse; Rostock (294,000 vols.), founded by Grossherzog Albrecht of Mecklenburg in 1552, based in part upon the collections of the short-lived University of Bützow; Würzburg (400,000 vols.), founded by the Prince-Bishop Julius Echter v. Mespelbrunn; Giessen (261,747 vols.), formed of a collection purchased in Prague in 1605, and Tübingen (555,283 vols.), founded in 1477, based originally in monastic collections.

Special Libraries.- Germany has many excellent special libraries, of which the most important are at Berlin, the collections in law, medicine and technology being particularly noteworthy. As might be expected, the military collections are impressive, the Bibliothek des grossen Generalstabes, Berlin, numbering about 100,000 volumes, and that of Kreigsakademie about 105,000 volumes. The majority of the schools of technology have large and wellselected libraries. Consult Addressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken'; Ebert, 'Geschichte u. beschreibung der K. Oeffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden (Leipzig 1822); Hortzschansky, 'Die K. Bibliothek zu Berlin' (Berlin 1908); Jaeschke, Volks-bibliotheken'; Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken' (Leipzig 1902); Petzholdt, 'Addressbuch der bibliotheken Deutschlands mit einschluss von Oesterreich-Ungarn u. der Schweiz) (3 vols., Dresden 1875).

ITALY.

The library history of the kingdom of Italy has its roots in antiquity. Here was established the first Western monastery, Monte Cassino, whose library still exists. This was founded by Saint Benedict in 529. It was in Italy that Petrarch, Boccaccio, Poggio and their confrères began the search for manuscripts and objects of ancient art that initiated the Renaissance. As in Germany, another thing that encouraged the development of libraries was development of the small states and free cities. The rulers of these, during the later mediæval period and throughout the Renaissance, were often patrons of art and learning who loved books and found much delight in collecting them. Many of the modern Italian libraries originated in such collections, and in spite of numberless wars and vicissitudes of all kinds