call for a very radical modification in the types of training that have been looked for in candidates for high-school positions. One very seldom hears any inquiry made of a teacher who is to give high-school courses in history other than those which relate to his preparation in history. The same is true of literature, of modern languages, and even of mathematics. There has been very little recognition of any special preparation for educational study of the children.

a) The demand which is here expressed has often been recognized in a somewhat narrower form. Teachers have been urged to study some scientific subject closely related to education, such as the theory of education or psychology. The unfortunate effect of short courses in these subjects has often been that teachers have required the false notion that they are supplied thru these courses with a scientific attitude toward education. Psychology and theory of education may be, and often are, quite as formal as other disciplines. It is only when these lines of study prepare the teacher for independent grasp of educational problems that they serve the end for which they are here. advocated. It would be very much better for the prospective teacher to get a broad general scientific training by taking courses in biology or physics and then learn to apply his scientific habits to education thru psychology or the theory of education, than that he should get a vague body of psychological information and little of its scientific spirit.

The fact that high-school teachers are not generally trained in the methods of independent attack upon problems comes out very clearly when one contrasts American high-school teachers with teachers in the German Gymnasium or the French lycée. To be sure the ordinary high-school teacher is overloaded with hours and is distracted from original investigation by temptations to enter administrative positions, such as the principalship of a high school or the superintendency of some neighboring school system, and for these external reasons scholarly research in American high schools is relatively rare as compared with German and French schools. But when all of these external conditions have been taken into account, the fundamental difficulty lies in the fact that high-school teachers are not trained in the methods of investigating even problems that fall within their special lines of investigation. It is a little wonder in view of these facts that there should be so much formalism and lack of scientific investigation in their treatment of the practical school problems which can come to them.

b) It seems very doubtful whether this special form of training can be adequately provided by departments of education in colleges. It certainly could not be provided by any special institutions for the preparation of highschool teachers analogous to the normal schools of the training of elementary teachers. The best work of a department of education in this respect is probably to interest students in broad scientific study and to interest the scientific departments in the college in giving the right sort of scientific attitude to those who are preparing to teach in the high schools. Some special

discussions from a scientific point of view of the problems of the high school might very properly be the work of a department of education, but the candidate for a position in the high school should never be allowed to present, in full satisfaction of his science requirements, courses in the theory of education. Such theory of education is at the present time in too formative a condition to be a suitable basis for scientific training.

6. A brief summary of the foregoing argument, then, is as follows: First, the most essential requirement for the preparation of a high-school teacher is elaborate training in the subject to be taught. This should extend into the higher branches of the subject to be taught to a sufficient extent to make the student reasonably independent in his judgment of authorities upon that subject. Second, the teacher should be acquainted with the institutions of education in the midst of which the high school stands. He should have some knowledge of the development of secondary schools in other countries and in America. Third, he should have, whatever his specialty may be, a training in science for the purpose of preparing him to deal with the problems that arise in his contact with students. The source of this training should not be sought in those disciplines which deal most intimately with the facts of education, but in whatever scientific subjects are available as giving the most complete training in scientific method.

I.

IX

GEORGE W. A. LUCKEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF

NEBRASKA

1. We are in the midst of a most fruitful period in educational history. Within the past thirty or thirty-five years the population of the United States has doubled, the school attendance trebled, the average length of the school term has increased from one of six to one of seven months, and the attendance in public high schools risen from thirty thousand in 1878 to over six hundred thousand in 1903. Taking the last ten years for which I have been able to obtain data 1893-4 to 1903-4-the enrolment in secondary education. increased from four hundred eighty thousand to eight hundred twenty-two thousand, or an average increase of more than thirty-four thousand per year. During the same period the enrolment of students in colleges and universities in the United States changed from seventy-eight thousand to one hundred eighteen thousand. I have reason to believe that this great increase in higher education has been no less rapid during the past few years. In many schools. the attendance has doubled and even trebled within the last ten years.

This evolution in education is shown not alone by the increase in attendance. Our conceptions of education are undergoing a remarkable change. The people are beginning to realize that secondary education is an essential part of the common-school system, the years of which increase in importance as you ascend the scale. Human life is larger than it used to be and vastly more important. As civilization grows in complexity, education must grow in

efficiency. Owing to the increase in education and the complexity of presentday problems, greater responsibility is being placed on the young. In the high schools of the future are to be planned and executed some of the most important battles of civilization. These schools must be kept in close touch. with the life of the community. All problems that vitally affect society should find consideration here. To teach in such an institution one must know and appreciate life. His education must be dynamic, not static. He must have keen insight and be able to adjust himself to new conditions with the least possible friction. He must not only be thoroly alive to the needs of humanity, but he must know how to inspire others with its problems.

Not many years ago the chief purpose of higher education was to prepare for professional life. Only those who desired to enter the learned professions had need of such education. Today the problem has greatly changed and the multiplied industries as well as the learned professions are in need of men of brain and brawn. To meet these changed conditions of society the highschool curricula must be modified, the attendance increased, sex and class distinctions and advantages eliminated, and the teaching force vitalized. To do this the problems of education must become a part of every teacher's stock in trade.

Large sums of money are needed to carry forward the work of education and more will be needed in the future. But the people recognize the importance of giving and can be relied upon so long as they have faith in their schools. If the teacher is properly prepared for his work and equal to the emergency, he will give sufficient proof for the faith reposed in him. He will organize and give purpose to the thought, shape the ideals, and better the life of every boy and girl placed under his instruction. No one can succeed without an ideal or well-conceived aim, and it is the purpose of good teaching to create within the students ideals of life equal to their strength and worthy of their best endeavor. The aimless teacher can be of no service in inspiring others— precept is nothing, example is everything. He must have a high moral purpose, be thoroly alive, progressive, observant, and in sympathetic touch with the life of the community. It is no easy matter to prepare such a teacher, for more depends upon the how than the what.

The importance of this question can be seen in another way. In 1896 the University of Nebraska established what is known as the University teachers' certificate granted only to graduates who have met certain academic and professional requirements preparatory to teaching. Since that time the certificate has been granted to four hundred fifty-one graduates. One year ago, one hundred fourteen students received the degree of Bachelor of Arts, sixty-seven of that number received the university teachers' certificate, and eighty-two of the number are now teaching. This year (1905-6) there were one hundred thirty-eight students who received the Bachelor of Arts' degree,

These requirements are explained somewhat in detail in my work on The Professional Training of Secondary Teachers in the United States, The Macmillan Company, New York, pp. 186 ff.

sixty-eight of whom received the university teachers' certificate, and eightyeight of the graduates have indicated their intention of entering the profession of teaching. For a number of years a majority of the graduates of the university have engaged in teaching and what is true of the University of Nebraska is no doubt equally true of other state universities if not of all higher institutions. It is especially important that the education of these students who are to exert such a telling influence on humanity should be planned with care. And since, in many instances at least, they represent the majority of the student body there should be established in every such institution ample provision for their training.

When we come to determine the particular training of the high-school teacher there is still some divergence of opinion, tho there is quite general agreement that the high-school teacher should have at least a college education. By this is meant that he should have completed at least the first sixteen years of public education, as usually outlined, four years of elementary, four years of high school, and four years of college. The Committee of Fifteen appointed by the National Educational Association to consider among other things "The training of teachers" said, in its report of 1895, that,

The degree of scholarship required for secondary teachers is by common consent fixed at a collegiate education. That no one-with rare exceptions-should be employed to teach in a high school who has not this fundamental preparation.

This seems to have been the prevailing view of the National Educational Association ever since, and it has come to represent the more often-expressed view of the different state associations. Quoting from my work on The Professional Training of Secondary Teachers in the United States, published by the Macmillan Company in 1902:

We have reached a point in our educational progress-at least in many states-wherein the minimum standard for the preparation of elementary teachers can be, and ought to be, the equivalent of a four-years' high-school course, and at least two years of additional training at some good state normal school. The minimum requirement for secondary teachers should be, in addition to the above high-school course, a four-years' college course, supplemented by the professional requirements as outlined in the preceding chapter; the latter to be insisted upon as earnestly as the normal-school training is in the former

case.

Since writing the above I am even more convinced that these standards are attainable, practical, and desirable.

3. Scholarship alone is not sufficient no matter how thoro and extended it may have been. There must be in addition the teaching instinct, and a knowledge and appreciation of the educational processes and the laws of mental growth. Teaching and learning are disparate processess and are not acquired in the same way. The process of learning is one of acquisition. and mental adjustment, while the process of teaching is one of guidance and the imparting of knowledge. The prevailing motive in the one case must be the desire to know or to understand, while in the other it must be how to impart, to assist others, to know what is already known. In the one case the

end in view is the object or the subject-matter, in the other the growing mind of the child. Hence to know education from the learner's standpoint is not to know it from the teacher's standpoint.

4. When we come to determine the nature and amount of professional training for the high-school teacher there is less unanimity of thought. There is quite general agreement that there should be at least twelve hours in the department of education, and I am but voicing the prevailing practice when I quote again from my work on the professional training of secondary teachers as follows:

The average amount of purely professional study required of the student for the university-teachers' certificates is usually from fifteen to eighteen hours-more often the latter. This may or may not include a course in psychology offered in the department of philosophy and a special-methods course offered by the department in which the student has his major (academic) subject. The professional work is more often spread over the last two years of the college course. By some it is thought preferable to have it deferred until the last year in college or taken as graduate work and made a matter of concentration and intensive study.

The time will come when this professional study will be required in addition to the Bachelor's degree, but I do not believe we are ready for that now. I think it is better to have the professional training spread over the last two years of the college course. Naturally the professional study of the teacher should follow rather than precede or be taken with his academic training. The reasons for this have been given elsewhere. It is difficult for the student to approach a subject both in the attitude of the learner and the attitude of the teacher at one and the same time.

5. The various courses offered in departments of education which come under the category of professional knowledge may be grouped under the following heads: historical, theoretical, psychological, practical. Under historical may be included the history of education, school systems, educational classics, educational reformers; under theoretical may be included the theory, science, and philosophy of education; under psychological, genetic, and applied psychology, child-study, and adolescence; under practical, school organization, management and supervision, observation and practice teaching, methods of instruction, and the art of teaching. There is, of course, in this grouping considerable overlapping depending on the teacher and the nature of the instruction. The work of the student should be distributed over these four groups in order that the profession of teaching may appeal to him in its true significance.

6. From a study of the problem it is evident that the subjects which are thought to be of the most importance in the professional training of secondary teachers are as follows: history of education, with a probable course in educational systems-foreign and domestic; educational psychology, including child-study and adolescence; theory of education, including the science and

See The Professional Training of Secondary Teachers in the United States, published by the Macmillan Company, New York, pp. 189 ff.